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MODEEN MYTHOLOGY

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MODEEN MYTHOLOGY

ANDEEW LANG

M.A., LL.D. St Andrews

HONOBABY FELLOW OF MEETON COLLEGE, OXFOBD
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INTEODUCTION

It may well be doubted whether works of controversy
serve any useful purpose. ' On an opponent,' as
Mr. Matthew Arnold said, ' one never does make any
impression,' though one may hope that controversy
sometimes illuminates a topic in the eyes of impartial
readers. The pages which follow cannot but seem
wandering and desultory, for they are a reply to a
book, Mr. Max Miiller's Contributions to the Science of
Mythology, in which the attack is of a skirmishing-
character. Throughout more than eif^^ht hundred
pages the learned author keeps up an irregular fire
at the ideas and methods of the anthropological
school of mythologists. The reply must follow the
lines of attack.

Criticism cannot dictate to an author how he
shall write his own book. Yet anthropologists and
folk-lorists, ' agriologists' and ' Hottentotic ' students,
must regret that Mr. Max Miiller did not state their
general theory, as he understands it, fully and once
for all. Adversaries rarely succeed in quite under-
standing each other ; but had Mr. Max Miiller made
such a statement, we could have cleared up anything
in our position which might seem to him obscure.

Vlll MODERN MYTHOLOGY

Our system is but one aspect of the theory of
evokitioii, or is but the application of that theory
to the topic of mythology. The arcliEEologist studies
human life in its material remains ; he tracks progress
(and occasional degeneration) from the rudely chipped
flints in the ancient gravel beds, to the polished stone
weapon, and thence to the ages of bronze and iron.
He is guided by material ' survivals ' — ancient arms,
implements, and ornaments. The student of Institu-
tions has a similar method. He finds his relics of the
uncivilised past in agricultural usages, in archaic
methods of allotment of land, in odd marriage
customs, things rudimentary — fossil relics, as it
were, of an early social and political condition. The
archa3ologist and the student of Institutions compare
these relics, material or customary, with the weapons,
pottery, implements, or again with the habitual law
and usage of existing savage or barbaric races, and
demonstrate that our weapons and tools, and our
laws and manners, have been slowly evolved out of
lower conditions, even out of savage conditions.

The anthropological method in mythology is
the same. In civilised religion and myth we find
rudimentary survivals, fossils of rite and creed, ideas
absolutely incongruous with the environing morality,
philosophy, and science of Greece and India. Parallels
to these things, so out of keeping with civilisation,
we recognise in the creeds and rites of the lower
races, even of cannibals ; but there the creeds and
rites are 7iot incongruous with their environment of
knowledge and culture. There they are as natural
and inevitable as the flint-headed spear or marriage

INTRODUCTION IX

by capture. We argue, therefore, that religions and
mythical faiths and rituals which, among Greeks
and Indians, are inexplicably incongruous have
lived on from an age in which they were natural and
inevitable, an age of savagery.

That is our general position, and it would have
been a benefit to us if Mr. Max Mliller had stated
it in his own luminous way, if he wished to oppose
us, and had shown us where and how it fails to
meet the requirements of scientific method. In
place of doing this once for all, he often assails
our evidence, yet never notices the defences of our
evidence, which our school has been offering for
over a hundred years. He attacks the excesses of
which some sweet anthropological enthusiasts have
been guilty or may be guilty, such as seeing totems
wherever they find beasts in ancient religion, myth,
or art. He asks for definitions (as of totemism),
but never, I think, alludes to the authoritative
definitions by Mr. McLennan and Mr. Frazer. He
assails the theory of fetishism as if it stood now
where De Brosses left it in a purely pioneer work —
or, rather, where he understands De Brosses to have
left i(. One might as well attack the atomic theory
where Lucretius left it, or the theory of evolution
where it was left by the elder Darwin.

Thus Mr. Max Mliller really never comes to grips
with his opponents, and his large volumes shine
rather in erudition and style than in method and
system. Anyone who attempts a reply must neces-
sarily follow Mr. Max Mliller up and down, collect-
ing his scattered remarks on this or that point at

X MODERN MYTHOLOGY

issue, Hence my reply, much against my will,
must seem desultory and rambling. But I have
endeavoured to answer with some kind of method
and system, and I even hope that this little book
may be useful as a kind of supplement to Mr. Max
Mliller's, for it contains exact references to certain
works of which he takes the reader's knowledge for
granted.

The general problem at issue is apt to be lost
sight of in this guerilla kind of warfare. It is
perhaps more distinctly stated in the preface to
Mr. Max Mliller's Chips from a German Workshop,
vol. iv. (Longmans, 1895), than in his two recent
volumes. The general problem is this : Has lan-
guage— especially language in a state of ' disease,'
been the great source of the mythology of the
worldj Or does mythology, on the whole, represent
the survival of an old stage of thought — not caused
by language — from which civilised men have slowly
emancipated themselves ? Mr. Max Miiller is of the
former, anthropologists are of the latter, opinion.
Both, of course, agree that myths are a product of
thought, of a kind of thought almost extinct in
civilised races ; but Mr. Max Miiller holds that
language caused that kind of thought. We, on the
other hand, think that language only gave it one
means of expressing itself.

The essence of myth, as of fairy tale, we agree,
is the conception of the things in the world as all
alike animated, personal, capable of endless inter-
changes of form. Men may become beasts ; beasts
may change into men ; gods may appear as human

INTRODUCTION xi

or bestial ; stones, plants, winds, water, may speak
and act like human beings, and change shapes
with them.

Anthropologists demonstrate that the belief in
this universal kinship, universal personality of
things, which we find surviving onl}^ in the myths
of civilised races, is even now to some degree
part of the living creed of savages. Civilised myths,
then, they urge, are survivals from a parallel state
of belief once prevalent among the ancestors of even
the Aryan race. But how did this mental condi-
tion, this early sort of false metaphysics, come into
existence ? We have no direct historical informa-
tion on the subject. If I were obliged to offer an '
hypothesis, it would be that early men, conscious
of personality, will, and life — conscious that force,
when exerted by themselves, followed on a de-
termination of will within them — extended that
explanation to all the exhibitions of force which
they beheld without them. Elvers run (early man
thought), winds blow, fire burns, trees wave, as a
result of their own will, the will of personal con-
scious entities. Such vitality, and even power of
motion, early man attributed even to inorganic
matter, as rocks and stones. All these things were
beings, like man himself. This does not appear to
me an unnatural kind of nascent, half-conscious meta-
physics. ' Man never knows how much he anthropo-
morphises.' He extended the only explanation of
his own action which consciousness yielded to him,
he extended it to explain every other sort of action
in the sensil)le world. Early Greek philosophy re-

XU MODERN MYTHOLOGY

cognised the stars as living bodies ; all things had once
seemed living and personal. From the beginning,
man was eager causas cognoscere rerum. The only
cause about which self-consciousness gave him any
knowledge was his own personal will. He there-
fore supposed all things to be animated with a like
will and personality. His mythology is a philosophy
of things, stated in stories based on the belief in
universal personality.

My theory of the origin of that belief is, of course,
a mere guess ; we have never seen any race in the
process of passing from a total lack of a hypothesis
of causes into that hypothesis of universally dis-
tributed personality which is the basis of mythology.

But Mr. Max Mliller conceives that this belief
in universally distributed personality (the word
' Animism ' is not very clear) was the result of an
historical necessity—not of speculation, but of
language. ' Boots were all, or nearly all, expressive
of action. . . . Hence a river could only l^e called
or conceived as a runner, or a roarer, or a defender ;
and in all these capacities alw'ays as something
active and animated, nay, as something masculine
or feminine.'

But why conceived as ' masculine or feminine ' ?
This necessity for endowing inanimate though active
things, such as rivers, with sex, is obviously a
necessity of a stage of thought wholly unlike our
own. We know that active inanimate things are
sexless, are neuter ; ive feel no necessity to speak
of them as male or female. How did the first
speakers of the human race come to be obliged to

INTRODUCTION XI 11

call lifeless things ])y names connoting sex, and
therefore connoting, not only activity, but also life
and personality ? We explain it by the theory that
man called lifeless things male or female — by using
gender-terminations — as a result of his habit of
regarding lifeless things as personal beings ; that
habit, again, being the result of his consciousness of
himself as a living will,

Mr. Max Mliller takes the opposite view. Man
did not call lifeless things by names denoting sex
because he regarded them as persons; he came to
regard them as persons because he had already given
them names connoting sex. And why had he done
that ? This is what Mr. Max Mliller does not explain.
He says :

' In ancient languages every one of these words '
(sky, earth, sea, rain) ' had necessarily ' (why
necessarily ?) ' a termination expressive of gender,
and this naturally produced in the mind the
corresponding idea of sex, so that these names
received not only an individual but a sexual
character.' ^

It is curious that, in proof apparently of this,
Mr. Max Muller cites a passage from the Printers
Register, in which we read that to little children
' everything is alive. . . . The same instinct that
prompts the child to personify everything remains
unchecked in the savage, and grows up with him to
manhood. Hence in all simple and early languages
there are but two genders, masculine and feminine.'

> C7;7>.s, iv. 62.

XIV MODERN MYTHOLOGY

The Printers Register states our theory in its
own words. First came the childlike and savage
belief in universal personality. Thence arose the
genders, masculine and feminine, in early languages.
These ideas are the precise reverse of Mr. Max
Mliller's ideas. In his opinion, genders in language
caused the belief in the universal personality even
of inanimate things. The Printer s Register holds
that the belief in universal personality, on the other
hand, caused the genders. Yet for thirty years,
since 1868, Mr. Max Mliller has been citing his
direct adversary, in the Printers Register, as a
supporter of his opinion ! We, then, hold that man
thought all things animated, and expressed his belief
in gender-terminations. Mr. Max Mliller holds that,
because man used gender-terminations, therefore he
thought all things animated, and so he became
mythopoeic. In the passage cited, Mr. Max Mliller
does not say why ' in ancient languages every one of
these words had necessarily terminations expressive
of gender.' He merely quotes the hypothesis of
the Printers Register. If he accepts that hypothesis,
it destroys his own theory — that gender-terminations
caused all things to be regarded as personal; for,
ex hypothesis it was just because they were regarded
as personal that they received names with gender-
terminations. Somewhere — I cannnot find the refer-
ence— Mr. Max Mliller seems to admit that personal-
ising thought caused gender-terminations, but these
later ' reacted ' on thought, an hypothesis which
multiplies causes prceter necessitatem.

Here, then, at the verv threshold of the science

INTRODUCTION XV

of mythology we find Mr. Max Miiller at once
maintaining that a feature of language, gender-ter-
minations, caused the mythopoeic state of thought, and
quoting with approval the statement that the mytho-
poeic state of thought caused gender-terminations.

Mr. Max Miiller's whole system of mythology is
based on reasoning analogous to this example. His
mot (Tordre, as Professor Tiele says, is ' a disease
of language.' This theory implies universal human
degradation. Man was once, for all we know,
rational enough ; but his mysterious habit of using
gender-terminations, and his perpetual misconcep-
tions of the meaninj? of old words in his own Ian-
guage, reduced him to the irrational and often (as we
now say) obscene and revolting absurdities of his
myths. Here (as is later pointed out) the objection
arises, that all languages must have taken the
disease in the same way. A Maori myth is very like
a Greek myth. If the Greek myth arose from a
disease of Greek, how did the wholly different Maori
speech, and a score of others, come to have precisely
the same malady ?

Mr. Max Miiller alludes to a Maori parallel to
the myth of Cronos.^ ' We can only say that there
is a rusty lock in New Zealand, and a rusty lock in
Greece, and that, surely, is very small comfort.' He
does not take the point. The point is that, as the
myth occurs in two remote and absolutely uncon-
nected languages, a theory of disease of language
cannot turn the wards of the rusty locks. The myth
is, in part at least, a nature-myth — an attempt to

' Claps, iv. p. XXXV.

XVI MODERN MYTHOLOGY

account for tlie severance of Heaven and Earth (once
united) by telling a story in which natural pheno-
mena are animated and personal. A disease of
language has nothing to do with this myth. It is
cited as a proof against the theory of disease of
lano'ua^e.

The truth is, that while languages differ, men (and
above all early men) have the same kind of thoughts,
desires, fancies, habits, institutions. It is not that
in. which all races formally differ — their language—
but that in which all early races are astonishingly
the same — their ideas, fancies, habits, desires — that
causes the amazing similarity of their myths.

Mythologists, then, Mdio find in early human nature
the living ideas which express themselves in myths
will hardily venture to compare the analogous myths
of all peoples. Mythologists, on the other hand, who
find the origin of myths in a necessity imposed upon
thought by misunderstood language will necessarily,
and logically, compare only myths current among
races who speak languages of the same family. Thus,
throughout Mr. Max MuUer's new book we constantly
find him protesting, on the whole and as a rule, against
the system which illustrates Aryan myths by savage
parallels. Thus he maintains that it is perilous to make
comparative use of myths current in languages — -say,
Maori or Samoyed — which the mythologists con-
fessedly do not know. To this we can only reply that
we use the works of the best accessible authorities,
men who do know the languages — say. Dr. Codrington
or Bishop Callaway, or Castren or Egede. Now it is

INTHODUCTION xvii

not maintained that the myths, on the whole, are in-
correctly translated. The danger which we incur, it
seems, is it^^norance of the ori<2final sense of savage or
barbaric divine or heroic names — say, Maui, or Yehl,
or Huitzilopochhtli, or Heitsi Eibib, or Pundjel. By
Mr. Max Mliller's system such names are old words,
of meanings long ago generally lost by the speakers of
each language, but analysableby ' true scholars' into
their original significance. That will usually be found
by the philologists to indicate ' the inevitable Dawn,'
or Sun, or Night, or the like, according to the taste
and fancy of the student.

To all this a reply is urged in the following
pages. In agreement with Curtius and many other
scholars, we very sincerely doubt almost all ety-
mologies of old proper names, even in Greek or
Sanskrit. We find among philologists, as a rule, the
widest discrepancies of interpretation. Moreover,
every name must mean something. Now, whatever
the meaning of a name (supposing it to be really
ascertained), very little ingenuity is needed to make
it indicate one or other aspect of Dawn or Night, of
Lightning or Storm, just as the philologist pleases.
Then he explains the divine or heroic being denoted
by the name — as Dawn or Storm, or Fire or Night,
or Twilight or Wind — in accordance with his private
taste, easily accommodating the facts of the myth,
whatever they may be, to his favourite solution. We
rebel against this kind of logic, and persist in study-
ing the myth in itself and in comparison with
analogous myths in every accessible language. Cer-

xviii MODERN MYTHOLOGY

tainly, if divine and heroic names — Artemis or Pund-
jel — can be interpreted, so much is gained. But the
myth may be older than the name.

As Mr. Hogarth points out, Alexander has in-
herited in the remote East the myths of early legendary
heroes. We cannot explain these by the analysis of
the name of Alexander ! Even if the heroic or divine
name can be shown to be the original one (which
is practically impossible), the meaning of the name
helps us little. That Zeus means ' sky ' cannot con-
ceivably explain scores of details in the very com-
posite legend of Zeus — say, the story of Zeus, Demeter,
and the Earn. Moreover, we decline to admit that, if
a divine name means ' swift,' its bearer must be the
wind or the sunlight. Nor, if the name means 'white/
is it necessarily a synonym of Dawn, or of Lightning,
or of Clear Air, or what not. But a mythologist
who makes language and names the fountain of
myth will go on insisting that myths can only be
studied by people who know the language in which
they are told. Mythologists who believe that human
nature is the source of myths will go on comparing
all myths that are accessible in translations by com-
petent collectors.

Mr. Max Miiller says, ' We seldom find mythology,
as it were, in situ — as it lived in the minds and un-
restrained utterances of the people. We generally
have to study it in the works of mythographers, or in
the poems of later generations, when it had long
ceased to be living and intelligible.' The myths of
Greece and Eome, in Hyginus or Ovid, ' are likely to
he as misleadini"- as a Iwrtus siccus would be to a

INTRODUCTION XIX

botanist if debarred from his rambles through meadows
and hedges.' ^

Nothing can be more true, or more admirably
stated. These remarks are, indeed, the charter, so
to speak, of anthropological mythology and of folk-
lore. The old mythologists worked at a liortiis
siccus, at myths dried and pressed in thoroughly
literary books, Greek and Latin. But we now
study myths 'in the unrestrained utterances of the
people,' either of savage tribes or of the Euro-
pean Folk, the unprogressive peasant class. The
former, and to some extent the latter, still live in
the mythopoeic state of mind — regarding bees, for
instance, as persons who must be told of a death in
the family. Their myths are still not wholly out of
concord with their habitual view of a world in which
an old woman may become a hare. As soon as
learned Jesuits like Pere Lafitau began to under-
stand their savage flocks, they said, ' These men are
living in Ovid's Metamorphoses.' They found mytho-
logy in situ ! Hence mythologists now study mytho-
logy in situ — in savages and in peasants, who till
very recently were still in the mythopoeic stage of
thought. Mannhardt made this idea his basis. Mr.
Max Mliller says,- very naturally, that I have been
' popularising the often difficult and complicated
labours of Mannhardt and others.' In fact (as is
said later), I published all my general conclusions
before I had read Mannhardt. Quite independently
I could not help seeing that among savages and
peasants we had mythology, not in a literary hortus

^ Chips, iv. pp. vi. vii. - Ibid. iv. p. xv.

XX MODERN MYTHOLOGY

siccus, but in situ. Mannhardt, thougli he appre-
ciated Dr. Tylor, had made, I thmk, but few original
researches among savage myths and customs. His
province was European folklore. Wliat he missed
will be indicated in the chapter on ' The Fire-Walk '
~ — one example among many.

But this kind of mythology in situ, in ' the unre-'

strained utterances of the people,' Mr. Max Miiller tells

us, is no province of his. ' I saw it was hopeless for

me to gain a knowledge at first hand of innumerable

local legends and customs ; ' and it is to be supposed

that he distrusted knowledge acquired by collectors :

Grimm, Mannhardt, Campbell of Islay, and an army

of others. ' A scholarlike knowledge of Maori or

Hottentot mythology ' was also beyond him. We,

on the contrary, take our Maori lore from a host of

collectors : Taylor, White, Manning (' The Pakeha

Maori'), Tregear, Polack, and many others. From

them we flatter ourselves that we get — as from Grimm,

Mannhardt, Islay, and the rest — mythology in situ.

We compare it with the dry mythologic blossoms of

the classical liortus siccus, and with Greek ritual and

temple legend, and with Mdrchen in the scholiasts, and

we think the comparisons very illuminating. They

have thrown new light on Greek mythology, ritual,

mysteries, and religion. This much we think we

have already done, thougli we do not know Maori,

and though each of us can hope to gather but few

facts from the mouths of living peasants.

Examples of the results of our method will be found
in the following pages. Thus, if the myth of the fire-
stealer in Greece is explained by misunderstood Greek

INTRODUCTION XXI

or Sanskrit words in no way connected with robbery,
we shall show that the myth of the theft of fire
occurs where no Greek or Sanskrit words were ever
spoken. There ^ we shall show, the myth arose from
simple inevitable human ideas. We shall therefore
doubt whether in Greece a common human myth
had a singular cause — in a 'disease of language.'

It is with no enthusiasm that I take the opportunity
of Mr. Max Miiller's reply to me ' by name.' Since
Myth, Ritual, and Religion (now out of print, but
accessible in the French of M. Marillier) was pub-
lished, ten years ago, I have left mythology alone.
The general method there adopted has been applied
in a much more erudite work by Mr. Frazer, The
Golden Bough, by Mr. Farnell in Cults of the Greek
States, by Mr. Jevons in his Introduction to the
History of Religion, by Miss Harrison in explanations
of Greek ritual, by Mr. Hartland in The Legend of
Perseus, and doubtless by many other writers. How
much they excel me in erudition may be seen by
comparing Mr. Farnell's passage on the Bear Artemis^
with the section on her in this volume.

Mr. MaxMllUer observes that ' Mannhardt's mytho-
logical researches have never been fashionable.' They
are now very much in fashion ; they greatly inspire
Mr. Frazer and Mr. Farnell. ' They seemed to me,
and still seem to me, too exclusive,' says Mr. Max
Mtiller.- Mannhardt in his second period was indeed
chiefly concerned with myths connected, as he
held, with agriculture and with tree-worship. Mr.

1 Cults of the Greek States, ii. 435-440.
- Chips, iv. p. xiv.

XXll MODERN MYTHOLOGY

f Max Miiller, too, has been tlioiigiit ' exclusive ' —

I ' as teaching,' he comj)lains, ' that the whole of

i mythology is solar/ That reproach arose, he says,

,' because ' some of my earliest contributions to com-

■ parative mythology were devoted exclusively to the

special subject of solar myths.' ^ But Mr. Max
Miiller also mentions his own complaints, of ' the
omnipresent sun and the inevitable dawn appearing
in ever so many disguises,'

Did they really appear? Were the myths, say
the myths of Daphne, really solar ? That is pre-
cisely what we hesitate to accept. In the same way
Y Mannhardt"s preoccupation with vegetable myths
^ has tended, I think, to make many of his followers
ascribe veo-etable orio-ins to mvths and o^ods, where
the real origin is perhaps for ever lost. The corn-
spirit starts up in most unexpected places. Mr.
11 Frazer, Mannhardt's disciple, is very severe on solar
theories of Osiris, and connects that god with the
corn-spirit. But Mannhardt did not go so far.
Mannhardt thought that the myth of Osiris was
solar. To my thinking, these resolutions of myths
into this or that original source — solar, nocturnal,
vegetable, or what not — are often very perilous.
A myth so extremely composite as that of Osiris
must be a stream flowing from many springs, and,
as in the case of certain rivers, it is difficult or im-
possible to say which is the real fountain-head.

One would respectfully recommend to young
mythologists great reserve in their hypotheses of
origins. All this, of course, is the familiar thought

' CJiijJS, iv. p. xiii.

INTRODUCTION XXlll

of writers like Mr. Frazer and Mr. Farnell, but a
tendency to seek for exclusively vegetable origins of
gods is to be observed in some of the most recent
speculations. I well know that I myself am apt to
press a theory of totems too far, and in the follow-
ing pages I suggest reserves, limitations, and alter-
native hypotheses. // y a serpent et seiyent; a
snake tribe may be a local tribe named from the
Snake Eiver, not a totem kindred. Tlie history of
mythology is the history of rash, premature, and
exclusive theories. We are only beginning to learn
caution. Even the prevalent anthropological theory
of the ghost-origin of religion might, I think, be
advanced with caution (as Mr. Jevons argues on
other grounds) till we know a little more about
ghosts and a great deal more about psychology.
We are too apt to argue as if the psychical con-
dition of the earliest men were exactly like our own ;
while we are just beginning to learn, from Prof.
William James, that about even our own psychical
condition we are only now realising our exhaustive
ignorance. How often we men have thought certain
problems settled for good ! How often we have
been compelled humbly to return to our studies !
Philological comj)arative mythology seemed securely
seated for a creneration. Her throne is totterino- :

Our little systems have their day,
They have their day and cease to be,
They are but broken lights from Thee,

And Thou, we trust, art more than they.

But we need not hate each other for the sake of
our little systems, like the grammarian who damned

XXIV MODERN MYTHOLOGY

liis rivars soul for his ' theory of the irregular
r~ verbs.' [Nothing, I hope, is said here inconsistent
with the highest esteem for Mr. Max Miiller's vast
erudition, his enviable style, his unequalled contri-
butions to scholarship, and his awakening of that
interest in mythological science without which his
adversaries would probably never have existedj

Most of Chapter XII. appeared in the ' Con-
temporary Review,' and most of Chapter XIII. in
the ' Princeton Review.'

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION . ... . Vli

I. RECENT MYTHOLOGY ....... 1

II. THE STORY OF DAPHNE ....... 9

III. THE QUESTION OF ALLIES ...... 22

IV. MANNHARDT 41

V. PHILOLOGY AND DEMETER ERINNYS .... 65

VI. TOTEMISM ......... 70

VII. THE VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE . . 92

VIII. THE PHILOLOGICAL METHOD IN ANTHROPOLOGY . . 104

IX. CRITICISM OP FETISHISM .112

X. THE RIDDLE THEORY 127

XI. ARTEMIS ... ..... 137

XII. THE FIRE-WALK 148

XIII. THE ORIGIN OP DEATH 176

XIV. CONCLUSION 199

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . 201

INDEX . ..... 203

MODERN MYTHOLOGY

EECENT MYTHOLOGY

Mythology in 1860-1880

Between 1860 and 1880, roughly speaking, English
people interested in early myths and religions found
the mythological theories of Professor Max Miiller
in possession of the field. These brilliant and
attractive theories, taking them in the widest sense,
were not, of course, peculiar to the Right Hon.
Professor. In France, in Grermany, in America, in
Italy, many scholars agreed in his opinion that the
science of language is the most potent spell for
opening the secret chamber of mythology. But
while these scholars worked on the same general
principle as Mr. Max Miiller, while they subjected
the names of mythical beings — Zeus, Helen, Achilles,
Athene — to philological analysis, and then explained
the stories of gods and heroes by their interpretations
of the meanings of their names, they arrived at all
sorts of discordant results. Where Mr. Max Miiller
found a myth of the Sun or of the Dawn, these
scholars were apt to see a myth of the wind, of the
lightning, of the thunder-cloud, of the crepuscule, of
the upper air, of what each of them pleased. But

2 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [i

these ideas — the ideas of Kuhn, Welcker, Curtius
(when he appeared in the discussion), of Schwartz, of
Lauer, of Breal, of many others — were very little
known — if known at all — to the English public.
Captivated by the graces of Mr. Max Mliller's
manner, and by a style so pellucid that it accredited
a logic perhaps not so clear, the public hardly
knew of the divisions in the philological camp. They
were unaware that, as Mannhardt says, the philo-
logical school had won ' few sure gains,' and had
discredited their method by a ' muster-roll of
variegated ' and discrepant ' hypotheses.'

Now, in all sciences there are differences of
opinion about details. In comparative mythology
there w^as, with rare exceptions, no agreement at all
about results beyond this point ; Greek and Sanskrit,
German and Slavonic myths were, in the immense
majority of instances, to be regarded as mirror-
pictures on earth, of celestial and meteorological
phenomena. Thus even the story of the Earth
Goddess, the Harvest Goddess, Demeter, was usually
explained as a reflection in myth of one or another
celestial phenomenon — dawn, storm-cloud, or some-
thing else according to taste.

Again, Greek or German myths were usually
to be interpreted by comparison with myths in
the Eig Veda. Their origin was to be ascertained
by discovering the Aryan root and original signi-
ficance of the names of gods and heroes, such as
Saranyu-Erinnys, Daphne-Dahana, Athene-Ahana.
The etymology and meaning of such names being
ascertained, the origin and sense of the myths in
which the names occur should be clear.

Clear it was not. There were, in most cases.

i] RECENT MYTHOLOGY 3

as many opinions as to the etymology and meaning
of each name and myth, as there were philologists
engaged in the study. Mannhardt, who began, in t
1858, as a member of the philological school, in his
last public utterance (1877) described the method
and results, including his own work of 1858, as
'mainly failures.'

But, long ere that, the English cultivated public
had, most naturally, accepted Mr. Max Mliller as the
representative of the school which then held the field
in comparative mythology. His German and other
foreign brethren, with their discrepant results, were
only known to the general, in England (I am not
speaking of English scholars), by the references to
them in the Oxford professor's own works. His
theories were made part of the education of children,
and found their way into a kind of popular primers.

For these reasons, anyone in England who was
daring enough to doubt, or to deny, the validity of
the philological system of mythology in general was
obliged to choose Mr. Max Mliller as his adversary.
He must strike, as it were, the shield of no Hospitaler
of unsteady seat, but that of the Templar himself.
And this is the cause of what seems to puzzle Mr.
Max Mliller, namely the attacks on his system and
his results in particular. An English critic, writing
for English readers, had to do with the scholar wdio
chiefly represented the philological school of mytho-^
logy in the eyes of England.

Autobiographical

Like other inquiring undergraduates in the sixties,
I read such works on mythology as Mr. Max Mliller
had then given to the world ; I read them with interest,

4 MODERN MYTHOI>OGY [i

but without conviction. The argument, the logic,
seemed to evade one ; it was purely, with me, a ques-
tion of logic, for I was of course prepared to accept
all of Mr. Max Miiller's dicta on questions of etymo-
logies. Even now I never venture to impugn them,
only, as I observe that other scholars very frequently
differ, toto ccelo, from him and from each other in
essential questions, I preserve a just balance of doubt;
I wait till these gentlemen shall be at one among
themselves.

After taking my degree in 1868, I had leisure to
read a good deal of mythology in the legends of all
races, and found my distrust of Mr. Max Miiller's
reasoning increase upon me. The main cause was
that whereas Mr. Max Miiller explained Greek myths
by etymologies of words in the Aryan languages,
chiefly Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Sanskrit, I kept
finding myths very closely resembling those of Greece
among Eed Indians, Kaffirs, Eskimo, Samoyeds,
Kamilaroi, Maoris, and Cahrocs. Now if Aryan
myths arose from a ' disease ' of Aryan languages,
it certainl}^ did seem an odd thing that myths so
similar to these abounded where non- Aryan languages
alone prevailed. Did a kind of linguistic measles
affect all tongues alike, from Sanskrit to Choctaw, and
everywhere produce the same ugly scars in religion
and myth ?

The Ugly Scars

The ugly scars were the problem ! A civilised
fancy is not puzzled for a moment by a beautiful
beneficent Sun-god, or even by his beholding the
daughters of men that they are fair. But a civilised
fancy is puzzled when the beautiful Sun-god makes

i] RECENT MYTHOLOGY 5

love iu the shape of a dog.^ To me, and indeed to
Mr. Max Miiller, the ugly scars were the problem.

He has written — ' What makes mythology mytho-
logical, in the true sense of the word, is what is utterly
unintelligible, absurd, strange, or miraculous.' But
he explained these blots on the mythology of Greece,
for example, as the result practically of old words
and popular sayings surviving in languages after
the original, harmless, symbohcal meanings of the »
words and sayings were lost. AVhat had been a /
poetical remark about an aspect of nature became
an obscene, or brutal, or vulgar myth, a stumbhng
block to Greek piety and to Greek philosophy.

To myself, on the other hand, it seemed that the -x
ugly scars were remains of that kind of taste, fancy, I
customary law, and incoherent speculation which /
everywhere, as far as we know, prevails to various /
degrees in savagery and barbarism. Attached to ^
the ' hideous idols,' as Mr. Max Miiller calls them,
of early Greece, and implicated in a ritual which
rehgious conservatism dared not abandon, the fables
of perhaps neohthic ancestors of the Hellenes re-
mained in the religion and the legends known to
Plato and Socrates. That this process of ' survival ' is
a vera causa, illustrated in every phase of evolution,
perhaps nobody denies.

Thus the phenomena which the philological school
of mythology explains by a disease of language
we would explain by survival from a savage state of
society and from the mental peculiarities observed
among savages in all ages and countries. Of course
there is nothing new in this : I was delighted to
discover the idea in Eusebius as in Fontenelle ; while,

' Suidas, s.v. reX^ia-o-elj ; he cites Dionysius of Chalcis, b.c. 200.

6 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [i

for general application to singular institutions, it
was a commonplace of the last century.^ Moreover,
the idea had been widely used by Dr. E. B. Tylor
in Primitive Culture, and by Mr, McLennan in his
Primitive Marriage and essays on Totemism.

My Criticism of Mr. Max MUUer

This idea I set about applying to the repulsive
myths of civilised races, and to Mdrchen, or popular
tales, at the same time combating the theories which
held the field — the theories of the philological
mythologists as applied to the same matter. In
journalism I criticised Mr. Max Miiller, and I
admit that, when comparing the mutuall}^ destructive
competition of varying etymologies, I did not
abstain from the weapons of irony and badinage.
The opportunity was too tempting ! But, in the
most sober seriousness, I examined Mr. Max Midler's
general statement of his system, his hypothesis of
certain successive stages of language, leading up
to the mythopoeic confusion of thought. It was not
a question of denying Mr. Max Miiller's etymologies,
but of asking whether he established his historical
theory by evidence, and whether his inferences from
it were logically deduced. The results of my
examination will be found in the article ' Mythology '
in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and in La Mytho-
logie!^ It did not appear to me that Mr. Max
Miiller's general theory was valid, logical, histori-
cally demonstrated, or self-consistent. My other
writings on the topic are chiefly Custom and Myth,
Myth, Ritual, and Religion (with French and Dutch

' See Goguet, and Millar of Glasgow, and Voltaire.
^ Translated by M. Parmentier.

i] RECENT MYTHOLOGY 7

translations, both much improved and corrected by
the translators), and an introduction to Mrs. Hunt's
translation of Grimm's Mdrchen.

Success of Anthropological Method.
During fifteen years the ideas which I advocated
seem to have had some measure of success. This is,
doubtless, due not to myself, but to the works of
Mr. J. G. Frazer and of Professor Eobertson Smith.
Both of these scholars descend intellectually from a
man less scholarly than they, but, perhaps, more
original and acute than any of us, my friend the
late Mr. J. F. McLennan. To Mannhardt also much
is owed, and, of course, above all, to Dr. Tylor.
These writers, like Mr. Farnell and Mr. Jevons
recently, seek for the answer to mythological
problems rather in the habits and ideas of the folk
and of savages and barbarians than in etymologies
and ' a disease of languao^e.' There are differences
of opinion in detail : I myself may think that ' vege-
tation spirits,' the ' corn spirit,' and the rest occupy
too much space in the systems of Mannhardt, and
other moderns. Mr. Frazer, again, thinks less of
the evidence for Totems among ' Aryans ' than I
was inclined to do.' But it is not, perhaps, an
overstatement to say that explanation of myths by
analysis of names, and the lately overpowering
predominance of the Dawn, and the Sun, and the
Night in mythological hypothesis, have received a
slight check. They do not hold the field with the
superiority which was theirs in England between
1860 and 1880. This fact — a scarcely deniable
fact — does not, of course, prove that the philological

' See ' Totemism,' infra.

8 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [i

method is wrong, or that the Dawn is not as great a
factor in myth as Mr. Max Mliller beheves himself
to have proved it to be. Science is inevitably sub-
ject to shiftings of opinion, action, and reaction.

Mr. Max Miiller's Reply

In this state of things Mr. Max Mliller produces
his Contributions to the Science of Mythology ^^ which
I propose to criticise as far as it is, or may seem to
me to be, directed against myself, or against others
who hold practically much the same views as mine.
I say that I attempt to criticise the book ' as far as
it is, or may seem to me to be, directed against ' us,
because it is Mr. Max Miiller's occasional habit to
argue (apparently) around rather than ivith his
opponents. He says ' we are told this or that '-^
something which he does not accept — but he often
does not inform us as to ivho tells us, or where.
Thus a reader does not know whom Mr. Max Mliller
is opposing, or where he can find the adversary's
own statement in his own words. Yet it is usual
in such cases, and it is, I think, expedient, to give
chapter and verse. Occasionally I find that Mr. Max
Mliller is honouring me by alluding to observations
of my own, but often no reference is given to an
opponent's name or books, and we discover the
passages in question by accident or research. This
method will be found to cause certain inconveni-
ences.

^ Longmans.

THE STOBY OF DAPHNE

Mr. Max Miiller's Method in Controversy

As . an illustration of the author's controversial
methods, take his observations on my alleged attempt
to account for the metamorphosis of Daphne into a
laurel tree. When I read these remarks (i. p. 4) I
said, ' Mr. Max Miiller vanquishes me there,' for he
gave no reference to my statement. I had forgotten
all about the matter, I was not easily able to find the
passage to which he alluded, and I supposed that I
had said just what Mr. Max Miiller seemed to me to
make me say — no more, and no less. Thus :

' Mr. Lang, as usual, has recourse to savages, most
useful when they are really wanted. He quotes an
illustration from the South Pacific that Tuna, the
chief of the eels, fell in love with Ina and asked her
to cut ofi* his head. When his head had been cut
off and buried, two cocoanut trees sprang up from
the brain of Tuna. How is this, may I ask, to
account for the story of Daphne ? Everybody
knows that " stories of the growing of plants out of
the scattered members of heroes may be found from
ancient Egypt to the wigwams of the Algonquins,"
but these stories seem hardly applicable to Daphne,
whose members, as far as I know, were never either
severed or scattered.'

I thought, perhaps hastily, that I must have

lO MODEEN MYTHOLOGY [ii

made the story of Tuna ' account for the stor}^ of
Daphne.' Mr. Max Mliller does not actually say
that I did so, but I understood him in that sense, and
recognised my error. But, some guardian genius
warning me, I actually hunted up my own observa-
tions.^ Well, I had never said (as I conceived my
critic to imply) that the story of Tuna ' accounts for
the story of Daphne.' That was what I had not said.
I had observed, ' As to interchange of shape between
men and women and ^.^/avzfe, our information, so far
as the lower races are concerned, is less copious ' —
than in the case of stones. I then spoke of plant
totems of one kin with human beings, of plant-souls,^
of Indian and Egyptian plants animated by human
souls, of a tree which became a young man and
made love to a Yurucari girl, of metamorphosis into
vegetables in Samoa,^ of an Ottawa myth in which
a man became a plant of maize, and then of the
story of Tuna.'* Next I mentioned plants said to
have sprung from dismembered gods and heroes.
All this, I said, all of it, proves that savages mythi-
cally regard human life as on a level with vegetable
no less than with animal life. ' Turning to the
mythology of Greece, we see that the same rule holds
good. Metamorphosis into plants and flowers is
extremely common,' and I, of course, attributed the
original idea of such metamorphoses to ' the general
savage habit of " levelling up," ' of regarding all
things in nature as all capable of interchanging their
identities. I gave, as classical examples, Daphne,
Myrrha, Hyacinth, Narcissus, and the sisters of
Phaethon. Next I criticised Mr. Max Miiller's theory

1 M. B. B. i. 155-160. - Tylor's Prim. Cult. i. 145,

^ Turner's Samoa, p. 219. ■* Gill's MytJm and Songn, p. 79.

ii] THE STORY OF DAPHNE II

of Daphne. But I never hinted that the isolated
Mangaian story of Tuna, or the stories of plants
sprung from mangled men, ' accounted,' by them-
selves, ' for the story of Daphne.'

Mr. Max Mliller is not content with giving a very
elaborate and interesting account of how the story
of Tuna arose (i. 5-7). He keeps Tuna in hand,
and, at the peroration of his vast work (ii. 831),
warns us that, before we compare myths in un-
related languages, we need ' a very accurate know-
ledge of their dialects ... to prevent accidents like
that of Tuna mentioned in the beoinnino-.' What
accident ? That I ex|)lained the myth of Daphne
by the myth of Tuna ? But that is precisely what I
did not do. I explained the Greek myth of Daphne
(1) as a survival from the savage mental habit of
regarding men as on a level with stones, beasts, and
plants ; or (2) as a tale ' moulded by poets on the
same model.' ^ The latter is the more probable case,
for we find Daphne late, in artifi.cial or mythographic
literature, in Ovid and Hyginus. In Ovid the river
god, Pentheus, changes Daphne into a laurel. In
Hyginus she is not changed at all ; the earth
swallows her, and a laurel fills her place.

Now I really did believe — perhaps any rapid
reader would have believed — when I read Mr. Max
Mliller, that I must have tried to account for the
story of Daphne by the story of Tuna. I actually
wrote in the first draft of this work that I had
been in the wrong. Then I verified the reference
which my critic did not give, with the result which
the reader has perused. Never could a reader have
found out what I did really say from my critic, for he

' M. B. R. ii. 160.

12 MODEKN MYTHOLOGY [ii

does not usually when he deals with me give chapter
and verse. This may avoid an air of personal bicker-
ing, but how inconvenient it is !

Let me not be supposed to accuse Mr. Max
Miiller of consciously misrepresenting me. Of that
I need not say that he is absolutely incapable. My
argument merely took, in his consciousness, the form
which is suggested in the passage cited from him.

Tuna and Daphne

To do justice to Mr. Max Miiller, I will here state
fully his view of the story of Tuna, and then go on
to the story of Daphne. For the sake of accuracy, I
take the liberty of borrowing the whole of his state-
ment (i. 4-7) : —

' I must dwell a little longer on this passage in
order to show the real difference between the ethno-
logical and the philological schools of comparative
mythology.

' First of all, what has to be explained is not the
growing up of a tree from one or the other member
of a god or hero, but the total change of a human
being or a heroine into a tree, and this under a
certain provocation. These two classes of plant-
legends must be carefully kept apart. Secondly,
what does it help us to know that people in Mangaia
believed in the change of human beings into trees,
if we do not know the reason why ? This is what
we want to know ; and without it the mere juxta-
position of stories apparently similar is no more
than the old trick of explaining ignotum per
ignotius. It leads us to imagine that we have
learnt something, when we really are as ignorant
as before.

' If Mr. A. Lang had studied the Mangaian dialect.

iij THE STORY OF DAPHNE I3

or consulted scholars like the Rev. W. W. Gill — it is
from his " Myths and Songs from the South Pacific "
that he quotes the story of Tuna — he would have
seen that there is no similarity whatever between the
stories of Daphne and of Tuna. The Tuna story
belongs to a very well known class of ^etiological
plant-stories, which are meant to explain a no longer
intelligible name of a plant, such as Snakeshead,
Stiefmlltterchen, &c. ; it is in fact a clear case of what
I call disease of language, cured by the ordinary
nostrum of folk-etymology. I have often been in
communication with the Rev. W. W. Gill about these
South Pacific mj^ths and their true meaning. The
preface to his collection of Myths and Songs from the
South Pacific was written by me in 1876 ; and if Mr.
A. Lang had only read the whole chapter which
treats of these Tree-Myths (p. 77 seq.), he would
easily have perceived the real character of the Tuna
story, and would not have placed it in the same class
as the Daphne story ; he would have found that the
white kernel of the cocoanut was, in Mangaia,
called the " brains of Tuna," a name like many more
such names which after a time require an explana-
tion.

' Considering that " cocoanut " was used in Mangaia
in the sense of head {testa), the kernel or flesh of it
might well be called the brain. If then the white
kernel had been called Tuna's brain, we have only
to remember that in Mangaia there are two kinds of
cocoanut trees, and we shall then have no difficulty
in understanding why these twin cocoanut trees
were said to have sprung from the two halves of
Tuna's brain, one being red in stem, branches, and
fruit, whilst the other was of a deep green. In
proof of these trees being derived from the head of
Tuna, we are told that we have only to break the

14 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [n

nut ill order to see in the sprouting germ the two
eyes and the mouth of Tuna, the great eel, the lover
of Ina. For a full understanding of this very com-
plicated myth more information has been supplied
by Mr. Gill. Ina means moon ; Ina-mae-aitu, the
heroine of our story, means Ina-who-had-a-divine
(aitu) lover, and she was the daughter of Kui, the
blind. Tuna means eel, and in Mangaia it was
unlawful for women to eat eels, so that even now,
as Mr. Gill informs me, his converts turn away from
this fish with the utmost disgust. From other stories
about the origin of cocoanut trees, told in the same
island, it would appear that the sprouts of the cocoa-
nut were actually called eels' heads, while the skulls
of warriors were called cocoanuts.

' Taking all these facts together, it is not difficult
to imagine how the story of Tuna's brain grew up ;
and I am afraid we shall have to confess that the
lesend of Tuna throws but little liopht on the leo-end
of Daphne or on the etymology of her name. No
one would have a word to say against the general
principle that much that is irrational, absurd, or
barbarous in the Veda is a survival of a more
primitive mythology anterior to the Veda. How
could it be otherwise ? '

Criticism of Tuna and Daphne

Now (1), as to Daphne, we are not invariably told
that hers was a case of ' the total change of a heroine
into a tree.' In Ovid ^ she is thus changed. In
Hyginus, on the other hand, the earth swallows her,
and a tree takes her place. All the authorities are
late. Here I cannot but reflect on the scholarly
method of Mannhardt, who would have examined and

1 Mctnm. i. 567.

ii] THE STORY OF DAPPINE 1 5

criticised all the sources for the tale before trying to
explain it. However, Daphne was not mangled ; a
tree did not spring from her severed head or scattered
limbs. She was metamorphosed, or was buried in
earth, a tree springing up from the place.

(2) I think we do know ivli.y the people of
Mangaia ' believe in the change of human beings
into trees.' It is one among many examples of the
savage sense of the intercommunity of all nature.
' Antiquity made its division between man and the
w^orld in a very different sort than do the moderns.' ^
I illustrate this mental condition fully in M. R. B.
i. 46-56. Why savages adopt the major premise,
' Human life is on a level with the life of all nature,'
philosophers explain in various ways. Hume regards
it as an extension to the universe of earty man's own
consciousness of life and personality. Dr. Tylor
thinks that the opinion rests upon ' a broad philo-
sophy of nature.' - M. Lefebure appeals to psychical
phenomena as I show later (see ' Fetishism '). At
all events, the existence of these savage metaphysics
is a demonstrated fact. I established it •' before
invoking it as an explanation of savage belief in
metamorphosis.

(3) ' The Tuna story belongs to a very well known
class of Eetiological plant-stories ' (a3tiological : assign-
ing a cause for the plant, its peculiarities, its name,
&c.), ' which are meant to explain a no longer
intelligible name of a plant, &c.' I also say, ' these
myths are nature-myths, so far as they attempt
to account for a fact in nature — namely, for the

^ Grimm, cited bj' Liebrecht in Zur Volksliunde, p. 17.
^ Primitive Culture, i. 285.
3 Op. cit. i. 46-81.

1 6 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [n

existence of certain plants, and for their place in
ritual.' 1

The reader has before him Mr. Max Mliller's view.
The white kernel of the cocoanut was locally styled
' the brains of Tuna.' That name required explana-
tion. Hence the story about the fate of Tuna.
Cocoanut was used in Mangaia in the sense of
' head ' (testa). So it is now in England.

See BeWs Life, passim, as ' The Chicken got
home on the cocoanut.'

The Explanation

On the whole, either cocoanut kernels were called
' brains of Tuna ' because ' cocoanut ' = ' head,' and
a head has brains — and, well, somehow I fail to see
why brains of Tuna in particular ! Or, there being
a story to the effect that the first cocoanut grew
out of the head of the metamorphosed Tuna, the
kernel was called his brains. But why was the story
told, and why of Tuna ? Tuna was an eel, and
women may not eat eels ; and Ina was the moon,
who, a Mangaian Selene, loved no Latmian shepherd,
but an eel. Seriously, I fail to understand Mr. Max
Midler's explanation. Given the problem, to explain
a no longer intelligible plant-name — brains of Tuna —
(applied not to a plant but to the kernel of a nut), this
name is explained by saying that the moon, Ina, loved
an eel, cut off his head at his desire, and buried it.
Thence sprang cocoanut trees, with a fanciful like-
ness to a human face — face of Tuna — on the nut.
But still, why Tuna ? How could the moon love an
eel, except on my own general principle of savage

1 M. B. R. i. IGO.

li] THE STORY OF DAPHNE 1 7

Erraticm

Page 17, line 6, Tuna, whatever his name may mean (Mr. Max
Miiller does not tell us), was an eel.

This is erroneous. See ContriMdions, &c., vol. i. p. 6, where

Mr. Max Miiller writes, ' Tuna means eel.' This shows why Tuna,

i.e. Eel, is the hero. His connection, as an admirer, with the
Moon, perhaps remains obscure.

Modern Mythology.

' We shall have to confess that the legend of
Tuna throws but little light on the legend of Daphne,
or on the etymology of her name.'

I never hinted that the legend of Tuna threw
light on the etymology of the name of Daphne.
Mangaian and Greek are not allied languages. Nor
did I give the Tuna story as an explanation of the
Daphne story. I gave it as one in a mass of illus-
trations of the savage mental propensity so copiously
established by Dr. Tylor in Primitive Culture. The
two alternative explanations which I gave of the
Daphne story I have cited. No mention of Tuna
occurs in either.

Disease of Language and Folk-etymology
The Tuna story is described as ' a clear case of
disease of language cured by the ordinary nostrum
of folk-etymology.' The ' disease ' showed itself, I

1 6 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [u

existence of certain plants, and for their place in
ritual.' ^

The reader has before him Mr. Max Mliller's view.
The white kernel of the cocoanut was locally styled
' fha ivrniiia nf Tuna,.' That name reauired explana-

why brains" of 7 una in particular ! Ur, tnere oemg
a story to the effect that the first cocoanut grew
out of the head of the metamorphosed Tuna, the
kernel was called his brains. But why was the story
told, and why of Tuna ? Tuna was an eel, and
women may not eat eels ; and Ina was the moon,
who, a Mangaian Selene, loved no Latmian shepherd,
but an eel. Seriously, I fail to understand Mr. Max
Midler's explanation. Given the problem, to explain
a no longer intelligible plant-name — brains of Tuna —
(applied not to a plant but to the kernel of a nut), this
name is explained by saying that the moon, Ina, loved
an eel, cut off his head at his desire, and buried it.
Thence sprang cocoanut trees, with a fanciful like-
ness to a human face — face of Tuna — on the nut.
But still, why Tuna ? How could the moon love an
eel, except on my own general principle of savage

' M. B. B. i. IGO.

ii] THE STORY OF DAPHNE 1 7

' levelling up ' of all life in all nature ? In my
opinion, the Mangaians wanted a fable to account
for the resemblance of a cocoanut to the human
head — a resemblance noted, as I show, in our own
popular slang. The Mangaians also knew the moon,
in her mythical aspect, as Ina ; and Tuna, whatever
his name may mean (Mr. Max Miiller does not tell
us), was an eel. Having the necessary savage major
premise in their minds, 'All life is on a level and
interchangeable,' the Mangaians thought well to say
that the head-like cocoanut sprang from the head
of her lover, an eel, cut off by Ina. The myth
accounts, 1 think, for the peculiarities of the cocoa-
nut, rather than for the name ' brains of Tuna ; ' for
we still ask, ' Why of Tuna in particular ? Why
Tuna more than Eangoa, or anyone else ? '

' We shall have to confess that the legend of
Tuna throws but little light on the legend of Daphne,
or on the etymology of her name.'

I never hinted that the legend of Tuna tlirew
light on the etymology of the name of Daphne.
Mangaian and Greek are not allied languages. Nor
did I give the Tuna story as an explanation of the
Daphne story. I gave it as one in a mass of illus-
trations of the savage mental propensity so copiously
established by Dr. Tylor in Pinmitive Culture. The
two alternative explanations which I gave of the
Daphne story I have cited. No mention of Tuna
occurs in either.

Disease of Language and Folk-etymology

The Tuna story is described as ' a clear case of
disease of language cured by the ordinary nostrum
of folk-etymology.' The ' disease ' showed itself, I

1 8 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ii

suppose, in the presence of the Mangaian words for
' brain of Tuna.' But the story of Tuna gives no
folk-etymology of the name Tuna. Now, to give
an etymology of a name of forgotten meaning is
the sole object of folk-etymology. The plant-name,
' snake's head,' given as an example by Mr.
Max MuUer, needs no etymological explanation. A
story may be told to explain why the plant is called
snake's head, but a story to give an etymology of
snake's head is superfluous. The Tuna story ex-
plains why the cocoanut kernel is called ' brains of
Tuna,' but it offers no etymology of Tuna's name.
On the other hand, the story that marmalade (really
marmalet) is so called because Queen Mary found
comfort in marmalade when she was sea-sick — hence
Marie-malade, hence marmalade — gives an etymo-
logical explanation of the origin of the word marma-
lade. Here is a real folk-etymology. We must
never confuse such myths of folk-etymology with
myths arising (on the philological hypothesis) from
' disease of language.' Thus, Daphne is a girl pur-
sued by Apollo, and changed into a daphne plant or
laurel, or a laurel springs from the earth where
she was buried. On Mr. Max Muller's philological
theory Daphne = Dahana, and meant ' the burning-
one.' Apollo may be derived from a Sanskrit form,
*Apa-var-yan, or *Apa-val-yan (though how Greeks
ever heard a Sanskrit word, if such a word as Apa-
val-yan ever existed, we are not told), and may mean
* one who opens the gate of the sky ' (ii. 692-696).^

1 Phonetically there may be ' no possible objection to the deriva-
tion of 'ATToXXtoi/ from a Sanskrit form, *Apa-var-yan, or *Apa-val-
yan ' (ii. 692) ; but, historically, Greek is not derived from Sanskrit
surely 1

n] THE STORY OF DAPHNE 1 9

At some unknown date the ancestors of the Greeks
would say ' The opener of the gates of the sky (*Apa-
val-yan, i.e. the sun) pursues the burning one
(Dahana, i.e. the dawn).' The Greek language
would retain this poetic saying in daily use till, in
the changes of speech, *Apa-val-yan ceased to be
understood, and became Apollo, while Dahana ceased
to be understood, and became Daphne. But the
verb being still understood, the phrase ran, ' Apollo
pursues Daphne.' Now the Greeks had a plant,
laurel, called daphne. They therefore blended plant,
daphne, and heroine's name, Daphne, and decided
that the phrase ' Apollo pursues Daphne ' meant
that Apollo chased a nymph, Daphne, who, to escape
his love, turned into a laurel. I cannot give Mr.
Max Miiller's theory of the Daphne story more
clearly. If I misunderstand it, that does not come
from want of pains.

In opposition to it we urge that (1) the etymo-
logical equations, Daphne = Dahana, Apollo = *Apa-
val-yan, are not generally accepted by other scholars.
Schroder, in fact, derives Apollo 'from the Vedic
Saparagenya, " worshipful," an epithet of Agni,' who
is Fire (ii. 688), and so on. Daphne = Dahana is no
less doubted. Of course a Greek simply cannot be
' derived ' from a Sanskrit word, as is stated, though
both may have a common origin, just as French is
not ' derived from ' Italian.

(2) If the etymologies were accepted, no proof is
offered to us of the actual existence, as a vera causa,
of the process by which a saying, ' Apollo pursues
Daphne,' remains in language, while the meanino- of
the words is forgotten. This process is essential, but

c 2

20 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [n

undemonstrated. See the chapter here on 'The
Eiddle Theory.'

(3) These processes, if demonstrated, which they
are not, must be carefully discriminated from the
actual demonstrable process of folk-etymology. The
Marmalade legend gives the etymology of a word,
marmalade ; the Daphne legend does not give an
etymology.

(4) The theory of Daphne is of the kind protested
against by Mannhardt, where he warns us against
looking in most myths for a ' mirror-picture ' on
earth of celestial phenomena.^ For these reasons,
among others, I am disinclined to accept Mr.
Max Miiller's attempt to explain the story of Daphne.

Mannhardt on Daphne

Since we shall presently find Mr. Max Miiller
claiming the celebrated Mannhardt as a sometime
deserter of philological comparative mythology, who
' returned to his old colours,' I observe with pleasure
that Mannhardt is on my side and against the Ox-
ford Professor. Mannhardt shows that the laurel
[daphne) was regarded as a plant which, like our
rowan tree, averts evil influences. 'Moreover, the
laurel, like the Maibaum, was looked on as a being
with a spirit. This is the safest result which myth
analysis can extract from the story of Daphne, a
nymph pursued by Apollo and changed into a laurel.
It is a result of the use of the laurel in his ritual.' ^
In 1877, a year after Mannhardt is said by Mr. Max
Muller to have returned to his old colours, he repeats

' Mythologische Forschungen, p. 275.
' Bauinkultus, p. 297. Berlin : 1875.

n] THE STORY OF DAPHNE 21

this explanation.^ In the same work (p. 20) he says
that ' there is no reason for accepting Max MuUer's
explanation about the Sun-god and the Dawn, wo
jeder thdtliche Anhalt dafilr feh.lt.' For this opinion
we might also cite the Sanskrit scholars Whitney
and Bergaigne.^

^ Antike Wald- und FeldJculte, p. 257. Referring to Baumkulms,
p. 297.

■^ Oriental and Linguistic Studies, second series, p. 160. La
Beligion Vedique, iii. 293.

22 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [in

III

THE QUESTION OF ALLIES

Athanasius

Mr. Max Muller protests, most justly, against the
statement thathe,like St. Athanasius, stands alone, con-
tra mundum. If ever this phrase fell from my pen (in
what connection I know not), it is as erroneous as
the position of St. Athanasius is honourable. Mr. Max
Mliller's ideas, in various modifications, are doubtless
still the most prevalent of any. The anthropo-
logical method has hardly touched, I think, the
learned contributors to Eoscher's excellent mytho-
logical Lexicon. Dr. Brinton, whose American re-
searches are so useful, seems decidedly to be a
member of the older school. While I do not exactly
remember alluding to Athanasius, I fully and freely
withdraw the phrase. But there remain questions
of allies to be discussed,

Italian Critics

Mr. Max Miiller asks,^ ' What would Mr. Andrew
Lang say if he read the words of Signor Canizzaro, in
his " Genesi ed Evoluzione del Mito " (1893), "Lang
has laid down his arms before his adversaries " ? '
Mr. Lang ' would smile.' And what would Mr. Max
Muller say if he read the words of Professor Enrico

1 1, viii. cf. i. 27.

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 23

Morselli, 'Lang gives no quarter to his adversaries,
who, for the rest, have long been reduced to silence ' ? ^
The Eight Hon. Professor also smiles, no doubt. We
both smile. Solvuntur risu tahulce.

A Dutch Defender

The question of the precise attitude of Professor
Tiele, the accomplished Gifford Lecturer in the
University of Edinburgh (1897), is more important
and more difficult. His remarks were made in 1885,
in an essay on the Myth of Cronos, and were separ-
ately reprinted, in 1886, from the ' Eevue de I'Histoire
des Eeligions,' which I shall cite. Where they
refer to myself they deal with Custom and Myth, not
with Myth, Ritual, and Religion (1887). It seems best
to quote, ipsissimis verbis, Mr. Max Mliller's comments
on Professor Tide's remarks. He writes (i. viii.) :

'Let us proceed next to Holland. Professor
Tiele, who had actually been claimed as an ally of
the victorious army, declares : — " Je dois m'elever,
au nom de la science mythologique et de I'exacti-
tude . . . contre une methode qui ne fait que giisser
sur des problemes de premiere importance." (See
further on, p. 35.)

' And again :

' " Ces braves gens qui, pour peu qu'ils aient lu un
ou deux livres de mythologie et d' anthropologic, et
un ou deux recits de voyages, ne manqueront pas de
se mettre a comparer a tort et a travers, et pour tout
resultat produiront la confusion." '

Again (i. 35) :

' Besides Signor Canizzaro and Mr. Horatio Hale,

^ Riv. Crit. Mensile. Geneva, iii. xiv. p. 2.

24 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [in

the veteran among comparative ethnologists, Pro-
fessor Tiele, in his Le Mythe de Kronos (1886),
has very strongly protested against the downright
misrepresentations of what I and my friends have
really written.

' Professor Tiele had been appealed to as an
unimpeachable authority. He was even claimed as
an ally by the ethnological students of customs and
myths, but he strongly declined that honour (1. c,

' " M. Lang m'a fait I'honneur de me citer," he writes,
" comme un de ses allies, et j'ai lieu de croire que
M. Gaidoz en fait en quelque mesure autant. Ces
messieurs n'ont point entierement tort. Cependant
je dois m'elever, au nom de la science mythologique
et de I'exactitude dont elle ne pent pas plus se
passer que les autres sciences, contre une methode qui
ne fait que glisser sur des problemes de premiere im-
portance," &c.

' Speaking of the whole method followed by those
who actually claimed to have founded a new school
of mythology, he says (p. 21) : —

' " Je crains toutefois que ce qui s'y trouve de vrai
ne soit connu depuis longtemps, et que la nouvelle
^cole ne peche par exclusionisme tout autant que les
ainees qu'elle combat avec tant de conviction."

' That is exactly what I have always said. What
is there new in comparing the customs and myths of
the Greeks with those of the barbarians ? Has not
even Plato done this ? Did anybody doubt that the
Greeks, nay even the Hindus, were uncivilised or
savages, before they became civilised or tamed ? Was
not this common-sense view, so strongly insisted on
by Fontenelle and Vico in the eighteenth century.

m] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 25

carried even to excess by such men as De Brosses
(1709-1771)? And have the lessons taught to De
Brosses by his witty contemporaries been quite for-
gotten ? Must his followers be told again and again
that they ought to begin with a critical examination
of the evidence put before them by casual travellers,
and that mythology is as little made up of one and
the same material as the crust of the earth of granite
only ? '

Professor Tiele wrote in 1885. I do not remember
having claimed his alliance, though I made one or
two very brief citations from his remarks on the
dangers of etymology applied to old proper names. ^
To citations made by me later in 1887 Professor
Tiele cannot be referring.^ Thus I find no proof of
any claim of alliance put forward by me, but I do
claim a right to quote the Professor's published words.
These I now translate : — ^

' What goes before shows adequately that I am
an aUy, much more than an adversary, of the new
school, whether styled ethnological or anthropological.
It is true that all the ideas advanced by its partisans
are not so new as they seem. Some of us — I mean
among those who, without being vassals of the old
school, were formed by it — had not only remarked
already the defects of the reigning method, but had
perceived the direction in which researches should be
made ; they had even begun to say so. This does not
prevent the young school from enjoying the great
merit of having first formulated with precision, and

' Custotn and Myth, p. 3, citing Bevue de VHist. des Religions,
ii. 136.

2 M. B. B. i. 24.

^ Bevue de VHist. des Behgiotis, xii. 256.

26 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [in

with the energy of conviction, that which had hitherto
been but imperfectly pointed out. If henceforth
mythological science marches with a firmer foot, and
loses much of its hypothetical character, it will in
part owe this to the stimulus of the new school.'

' Braves Gens '

Professor Tiele then bids us leave our cries of
triumph to the servum imitatorum pecus, braves gens,
and so forth, as in the passage which Mr. Max Miiller,
unless I misunderstand him, regards as referring to
the ' new school,' and, notably, to M. Gaidoz and
myself, though such language ought not to apply to
M. Gaidoz, because he is a scholar. I am left to
uncovenanted mercies.

Professor Tiele on Our Merits

The merits of the new school Professor Tiele had
already stated : — ^

' If I were reduced to choose between this
method and that of comparative philology, 1 would
prefer the former without the slightest hesitation.
This method alone enables us to explain the fact, such
a frequent cause of surprise, that the Greeks like
the Germans . . . could attribute to their gods all
manner of cruel, cowardly and dissolute actions.
This method alone reveals the cause of all the strange
metamorphoses of gods into animals, plants, and even
stones. ... In fact, this method teaches us to
recognise in all these oddities the survivals of an age
of barbarism long over-past, but lingering into later
times, under the form of religious legends, the most
persistent of all traditions. . . . This method, enjin,
can alone help us to account for the genesis of myths,

1 Op. cit. p. 253.

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 27

because it devotes itself to studying them in their
rudest and most primitive shape. . . .'

Destruction and Construction

Thus writes Professor Tiele about the constructive
part of our work. As to the destructive — or would-
be destructive — part, he condenses my arguments
against the method of comparative philology. ' To
resume, the whole house of comparative philological
mythology is builded on the sand, and her method
does not deserve confidence, since it ends in such
divergent results.' That is Professor Tide's state-
ment of my destructive conclusions, and he adds,
' So far, I have not a single objection to make. I
can still range myself on Mr. Lang's side wdien he '
takes certain distinctions into which it is needless to
go here.^

Allies or Not?

These are several of the passages on which, in
1887, I relied as evidence of the Professor's approval,
which, I should have added, is only partial. It is
he who, unsolicited, professes himself ' much more
our ally than our adversary.' It is he who proclaims
that Mr. Max Miiller's central hypothesis is erroneous,
and who makes ' no objection ' to my idea that it is
' builded on the sand.' It is he who assigns essential
merits to our method, and I fail to find that he ' strongly
declines the honour ' of our alliance. The passage
about ' braves gens ' explicitly does not refer to us.

Our Errors

In 1887, I was not careful to quote what Pro-
against us. I

Op. cit. xii. 250.

fessor Tiele had said against us. First, as to our want

28 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [m

of novelty. That merit, I think, I had never claimed.
I was proud to point out that we had been anticipated
by Eusebius of C^esarea, by Fontenelle, and doubtless
by many others. We repose, as Professor Tiele justly
says, on the researches of Dr. Tylor. At the same
time it is Professor Tiele who constantly speaks of
' the new school,' while adding that he himself had
freely opposed Mr. Max Miiller's central hypothesis,
' a disease of language,' in Dutch periodicals. The
Professor also censures our ' exclusiveness,' our
' narrowness,' our ' songs of triumph,' our use of
parody (M. Gaidoz republished an old one, not to
my own taste ; I have also been guilty of ' The Great
Gladstone Myth ') and our charge that our adversaries
neglect ethnological material. On this I explain my-
self later. ^

Uses of Philology

Our method (says Professor Tiele) ' cannot answer
all the questions which the science of mythology
must solve, or, at least, must study.' Certainly it
makes no such pretence.

Professor Tiele then criticises Sir George Cox
and Mr. Eobert Brown, junior, for their etymo-
logies of Poseidon. Indiscreet followers are not
confined to our army alone. Now, the use of
philology, we learn, is to discourage such etymo-
logical vagaries as those of Sir G. Cox.^ We also
discourage them — severely. But we are warned that
philology really has discovered ' some undeniably
certain etymologies ' of divine names. Well, I also
say, ' Philology alone can tell whether Zeus Asterios, or
Adonis, or Zeus Labrandeus is originally a Semitic or

' p. 104, infra. '^ Bevue de I'Hist. dee Religions, xii. 259.

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 29

a Greek divine name ; here she is the Pythoness
we must all consult.' ^ And is it my fault that, even
in this matter, the Pythonesses utter such strangely
discrepant oracles ? Is Athene from a Zend root
(Benfey), a Greek root (Curtius), or to be interpreted
by Sanskrit Ahand (Max Mliller)? Meanwhile
Professor Tiele repeats that, in a search for the origin
of myths, and, above all, of obscene and brutal myths,
' philology will lead us far from our aim.' Now, if
the school of Mr. Max Mliller has a mot d'ordre, it
is, says Professor Tiele, ' to call mythology a disease
of lanoruao-e.' ^ But, adds Mr. Max MUller's learned
Dutch defender, mythologists, while using philology
for certain purposes, ' must shake themselves free, of
course, from the false hypothesis ' (Mr. Max Miiller's)
' which makes of mythology a mere maladie du Ian-
gage.'' This professor is rather a dangerous defender of
Mr. Max Mliller ! He removes the very corner-stone of
his edifice, which Tiele does not object to our describ-
ing as founded on the sand. Mr. Max Mliller does
not cite (as far as I observe) these passages in which
Professor Tiele (in my view, and in fact) abandons (for
certain uses) his system of mythology. Perhaps Pro-
fessor Tiele has altered his mind, and, while keeping
what Mr. Max Mliller quotes, braves gens, and so on,
has withdrawn what he said about ' the false h3"po-
thesis of a disease of language.' But my own last
book about myths was written in 1886-1887, shortly
after Professor Tide's remarks were published (1886)
as I have cited them.

^ M. E. B. i. 25. » Bev. xii. 247.

30 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [in

Personal Controversy

All this matter of alliances may seem, and indeed
is, of a personal character, and therefore unim-
portant. Professor Tide's position in 1885-86 is
clearly defined. Whatever he may have published
since, he then accepted the anthropological or
ethnological method, as alone capable of doing the
work in which we employ it. This method alone
can discover the origin of ancient myths, and alone
can account for the barbaric element, that old
puzzle, in the myths of civilised races. This the
philological method, useful for other purposes, can-
not do, and its central hypothesis can only mislead
us. I was not aware, I repeat, that I ever claimed
Professor Tide's ' alliance,' as he, followed by Mr.
Max Mliller, declares. They cannot point, as a
proof of an assertion made by Professor Tiele,
1885-86, to words of mine which did not see the
light till 1887, in Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 24,
43, 44. Not that I deny Professor Tide's state-
ment about my claim of his alliance before 1885-86.
I merely ask for a reference to this claim. In 1887 ^
I cited his observations (already quoted) on the
inadequate and misleading character of the philo-
logical method, when we are seeking for ' the origin
of a myth, or the physical explanation of the oldest
myths, or trying to account for the rude and obscene
dement in the divine legends of civilised races.' I
added the Professor's applause of the philological
method as applied to other problems of mythology ;
for example, ' the genealogical relations of myths. . . .
The philological method alone can answer here,'

1 M. B. B. i. 24.

hi] the question of allies 31

aided, doubtless, by historical and archaeological
researches as to the inter-relations of races. This
approval of the philological method, I cited ; the
reader will find the whole passage in the Revue,
vol. xii, p. 260. I remarked, however, that this
will seem ' a very limited province,' though, in this
province, ' Philology is the Pythoness we must all
consult ; in this sphere she is supreme, when her
high priests are of one mind.' Thus I did not omit
to notice Professor Tide's comments on the merits
of the philological method. To be sure, he him-
self does not apply it when he comes to examine
the Myth of Cronos. ' Are the God and his myth
original or imported ? I have not approached this
question because it does not seem to me ripe in this
particular case.' ^ ' Mr. Lang has justly rejected the
opinion of Welcker and Mr. Max Mliller, that Cronos
is simply formed from Zeus's epithet, KpovCcov.'^
This opinion, however, Mr. Max Mliller still thinks
the 'most likely' (ii. 507).

My other citation of Professor Tiele in 1887 says
that our pretensions ' are not unacknowledged ' by
him, and, after a long quotation of approving passages,
I add ' the method is thus applauded by a most com-
petent authority, and it has been warmly accepted '
(pray note the distinction) by M. Gaidoz.^ 1 trust that
what I have said is not unfair. Professor Tide's objec-
tions, not so much to our method as to our manners,
and to my own use of the method in a special case,
have been stated, or will be stated later. Probably
I should have put them forward in 1887 ; I now
repair my error. My sole wish is to be fair ; if Mr.

» Bev. xii. 277. - Rev. xii. 264.

2 M. B. B. i. 44, 45.

32 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [m

Max Mliller lias not wholly succeeded in giving the
full drift of Professor Tide's remarks, I am certain
that it is from no lack of candour.

The Story of Cronos

Professor Tiele now devotes fifteen pages to the
story of Cronos, and to my essay on that theme. He
admits that I was right in regarding the myth as
' extraordinarily old,' and that in Greece it must go
back to a period when Greeks had not passed the
New Zealand level of civilisation. [Now, the New
Zealanders were cannibals !] But ' we are the victims
of a great illusion if we think that a mere compari-
son of a Maori and Greek myth explains the myth.'
I only profess to explain the savagery of the myth
by the fact (admitted) that it was composed by
savages. The Maori story ' is a myth of the creation
of light.' I, for my part, say, ' It is a myth of the
severance of heaven and earth.' ^ And so it is ! No
Being said, in Maori, ' Fiat lux ! ' Light is not here
created. Heaven lay flat on Earth, all was dark,
somebody kicked Heaven up, the already existing
lisflit came in. Here is no creation de la lumiere. I
ask Professor Tiele, ' Do you, sir, create light when
you open your window-shutters in the morning?
No, you let light in ! ' The Maori tale is also ' un
my the primitif de I'aurore,' a primitive dawn myth.
Dawn, again ! Here I lose Professor Tiele.

' Has the myth of Cronos the same sense ? '
Probably not, as the Maori story, to my mind, has
not got it either. But Professor Tiele says, ' The
myth of Cronos has precisely the opposite sense.' ^
What is the myth of Cronos ? Ouranos (Heaven)

' Custoyn and Myth, p. 51. ^ Bev. xii. 262.

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES ^^

married Gaea fEartli). Ouraiios ' hid his children
from the light in the hollows of Earth ' (Hesiod). So,
too, the New Zealand gods were hidden from light
while Heaven (Eangi) lay flat on Papa (Earth). The
children ' were concealed between the hollows of
their parent's breasts.' They did not like it, for they
dwelt in darkness. So Cronos took an iron sickle
and mutilated Ouranos in such a way, enjin, as to
divorce him a thoro. ' Thus,' I say, ' were Heaven
and Earth practically divorced.' Tiie Greek gods
now came out of the hollows where they had been,
like the New Zealand gods, ' hidden from the light.'

Professor Tiele on Sunset Myths

No, says Professor Tiele, ' the story of Cronos has
precisely the opposite meaning.' The New Zealand
myth is one of dawn, the Greek m3i'th is one of sun-
set. The mutilated part of poor Ouranos is le phallus
dii del, le soleil, which falls into ' the Cosmic ocean,'
and then, of course, all is dark. Professor Tiele may
be right here ; I am indifferent. All that I wanted
to explain was the savage complexion of the myth,
and Professor Tiele says that I have explained that,
and (xii. 264) he rejects the etymological theory of
Mr. Max Muller.

I say that, in my opinion, the second part of the
Cronos myth (the child-swallowing performances of
Cronos) ' was probably a world-wide Mcwchefi, or
tale, attracted into the cycle of which Cronos was
the centre, without any particular reason beyond the
law which makes detached myths crystallise round
any celebrated name.'

Professor Tiele says he does not grasp the mean-
ii\g of, or believe in, any such law. Well, why is

34 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [in

tlie world-wide tale of the Cyclops told about
Odysseus ? It is absolutely out of keeping, and it
puzzles commentators. In fact, here was a hero and
there was a tale, and the tale was attracted into the
cycle of the hero ; the very last man to have behaved as
Odysseus is made to do.^ But Cronos was an odious
ruffian. The world-wide tale of swallowing and dis-
gorging the children was attracted to his too notorious
name ' by grace of congruity.' Does Professor Tiele
now grasp my meaning [saisir) ?

Our Lack of Scientific Exactness

I do not here give at full length Professor Tiele's
explanation of the meaning of a myth which I do not
profess to explain myself. Thus, drops of the blood
of Ouranos falling on Earth begat the Melies,
usually rendered 'Nymphs of the Ash-trees.' But
Professor Tiele says they were really bees (Hesychius,
jaeXtat = /uteXto-crat) — ' that is to say, stars.' Every-
body has observed that the stars rise up off the
earth, like the bees sprung from the blood of
Ouranos. In Myth, Ritual, and Religion (i. 299-315)
I give the competing explanations of Mr. Max
Mliller, of Schwartz (Cronos = storm god), Preller
(Cronos = harvest god), of others who see the sun, or
time, in Cronos ; while, with Professor Tiele, Cronos
is the god of the upper air, and also of the under-
world and harvest ; he ' doubles the part.' ' // est Vun
et V autre ' — that is, ' le dieu qui fait miirir le hie ' and
also ' un dieu des lieux souterrains.' ' // hahite les
profondeurs sous la terre,' he is also le dieu du del
nocturne.

It may have been remarked that I declined

^ Odyssey, book ix.

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 35

to add to this interesting collection of plausible
explanations of Cronos, A selection of such explana-
tions I offer in tabular form : —

Cronos ivas God of

Time (?)

. Max Miiller

Sun .

. Sayce

Midnight sky

. Kuhn

Under-world \

Midnight sky ■ .

. Tiele

Harvest

. Preller

Storm .

. Schwartz

Star- swallowing sky

. Canon Taylor

Sun scorching spring

. Hartung

Cronos teas

by Race

Late Greek (?) .

. Max Miiller

Semitic

. Bottiger

Accadian (?).

. Sayce

Etymology of Cronos

XpoVos = Time (?) . . Max Miiller
Krana (Sanskrit) . . Kuhn

Karnos (Horned) . . Brown

Kpauo) .... Preller

The pleased reader will also observe that the
phalhcs of Ouranos is the sun (Tiele), that Cronos is
the sun (Sayce), that Cronos mutilating Ouranos is
the sun (Hartung), just as the sun is the mutilated
part of Ouranos (Tiele) ; Or is, according to others,
the stone which Cronos swallowed, and which acted
as an emetic.

My Lack of Explanation of Cronos

Now, I have offered no explanation at all of who
Cronos was, what he was god of, from what race
he was borrowed, from what language his name was

* D 2

.36 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iii

derived. The fact is that I do not know the truth
about these important debated questions. Therefore,
after speaking so kindly of our method, and reject-
ing the method of Mr. Max Midler, Professor Tiele
now writes thus (and this Mr. Max Muller does cite,
as we have seen) : —

' Mr. Lang and M. Gaidoz are not entirely wrong
in claiming me as an ally. But I must protest, in
the name of mythological science, and of the exact-
ness as necessary to her as to any of the other
sciences, against a method which only glides over
questions of the first importance ' (name, origin,
province, race of Cronos), ' and which to most ques-
tions can only reply, with a smile, C'est chercher raison
oil il 71 y en a pas.'

My Crime

Now, what important questions was I gliding
over ? In what questions did I not expect to find
reason ? Why in this savage fatras about Cronos
swallowing his children, about blood-drops becoming
bees (Mr. Max Miiller says ' Melian nymphs '), and
bees being stars, and all the rest of a prehistoric
Mdrchen worked over again and again by the later
fancy of Greek poets and by Greek voyagers who
recognised Cronos in Moloch. In all this I certainly
saw no ' reason,' but I have given in tabular form
the general, if inharmonious, conclusions of more
exact and conscientious scholars, ' their variegated
hypotheses,' as Mannhardt says in the case of
Demeter. My error, rebuked by Professor Tiele,
is the lack of that ' scientific exactitude ' exhibited
by the explanations arranged in my tabular form.

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 37

My Reply to Professor Tiele

I would reply that I am not engaged in a study
of the Cult of Cronos, but of the revolting element
in his Myth : his swallowing of his children, taking
a stone emetic by mistake, and disgorging the
swallowed children alive ; the stone being on view
at Delphi long after the Christian era. Now, such
stories of divine feats of swallowing and disgorging
are very common, I show, in savage myth and
popular Mdrchen. The bushmen have Kwai Hemm,
who swallows the sacred Mantis insect. He is killed,
and all the creatures whom he has swallowed return
to light. Such stories occur among Australians,
Kaffirs, Eed Men, in Guiana, in Greenland, and so
on. In some cases, among savages. Night (conceived
as a person), or one star which obscures another
star, is said to ' swallow ' it. Therefore, I say,
' natural phenomena, explained on savage principles,
might give the data of the swallowing myth, of
Cronos ' ^ — that is, the myth of Cronos may Ije,
probably is, originally a nature-myth. ' On this
principle Cronos would be [ad hoc) the Night.'
Professor Tiele does not allude to this effort at inter-
pretation. But I come round to something like
the view of Kuhn. Cronos {ad hoc) is the midnight
[sky], which Professor Tiele also regards as one of
his several aspects. It is not impossible, I think,
that if the swallowing myth was originally a nature-
myth, it was suggested by Night. But the question
I tried to answer was, ' Why did the Greeks, of all
people, tell such a disgusting story ? ' And I replied,
with Professor Tiele's approval, that they inherited

1 C. and M. p. 56.

38 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [in

it from an age to which such foUies were natural,
an age when the ancestors of the Greeks were on
(or under) the Maori stage of culture. Now, the
Maoris, a noble race, with poems of great beauty and
speculative power, were cannibals, like Cronos. To
my mind, ' scientific exactitude ' is rather shown in
confessing ignorance than in adding to the list of
guesses.

Conclusion as to Professor Tiele

The learned Professor's remarks on being ' much
more my ally than my opponent ' were published
before my Myth, Ritual, and Beligion, in which
(i. 24, 25) I cited his agreement with me in the
opinion that ' the philological method ' (Mr. Max
Mliller's) is ' inadequate and misleading, when it is a
question of discovering the origin of a myth.' I also
quoted his unhesitating preference of ours to Mr.
Max Mliller's method (i. 43, 44). I did not cite a
tithe of what he actually did say to our credit. But
I omitted to quote what it was inexcusable not to add,
that Professor Tiele thinks us ' too exclusive,' that
he himself had already, before us, combated Mr.
Max Mliller's method in Dutch periodicals, that he
blamed our ' songs of triumph ' and our levities, that
he thought we might have ignorant camp-followers,
that I glided over important questions (bees, blood-
drops, stars, Melian nymphs, the phallus of Ouranos,
&c.), and showed scientific inexactitude in declining
chercher raison oil il ny en a pas.

None the less, in Professor Tiele's opinion, our
method is new (or is not new), illuminating, success-
ful, and alone successful, for the ends to which we
apply it, and, finally, we have shown Mr. Max Mliller's

Ill] THE QUESTION OF ALLIES 39

method to be a house buikled on the sand. That is
the gist of what Professor Tiele said.

Mr. Max Miiller, hke myself, quotes part and
omits part. He quotes twice Professor Tiele's obser-
vations on my deplorable habit of gliding over
important questions. He twice says that we have
' actually ' claimed the Professor as ' an ally of the
victorious army,' ' the ethnological students of
custom and myth,' and once adds, ' but he strongly
declined that honour.' He twice quotes the famous
braves gens passage, excepting only M. Gaidoz, as a
scholar, from a censure explicitly directed at our
possible camp-followers as distinguished from our-
selves.

But if Mr. Max Miiller quotes Professor Tiele's re-
marks proving that, in his opinion, the ' army ' is really
victorious ; if he cites the acquiescence in my opinion
that Ids mythological house is ' builded on the sands,'
or Professor Tiele's preference for our method over
his own, or Professor Tiele's volunteered remark that
he is ' much more our ally than our adversary,' I
have not detected the passages in Contributions to the
Science of Mythology.

The reader may decide as to the relative im-
portance of what I left out, and of what Mr. Max
Miiller omitted. He says, ' Professor Tiele and I
differ on several points, but we perfectly understand
each other, and when we have made a mistake we
readily confess and correct it' (i. 37).

The two scholars, I thought, differed greatly.
Mr. Max Miiller"s war-cry, slogan, mot cTordre, is to
Professor Tiele ' a false hypothesis.' Our method,
which Mr. Max Miiller combats so bravely, is all that
Professor Tiele has said of it. But, if all this is not

* d4

40 MODEKN MYTHOLOGY [in

conspicuously apparent in our adversary's book, it
does not become me to throw the first stone. We
are all, in fact, inclined unconsciously to overlook
what makes against our argument. I have done it ;
and, to the best of my belief, Mr. Max Miiller has
not avoided the same error.

MANNHARDT

Mannhardt's Attitude

Professok TiELE, it may appear, really ' fights for
liis own hand,' and is not a thorough partisan of
either side. The celebrated Mannhardt, too, doubt-
less the most original student of folk-lore since
Grimm, might, at different periods of his career, have
been reckoned an ally, now by philologists, now by
' the new school.' He may be said, in fact, to have
combined what is best in the methods of both parties.
Both are anxious to secure such support as his works
can lend.

Moral Character Impeached

Mr. Max Mliller avers that his moral character
seems to be ' aimed at ' by critics who say that he
has no right to quote Mannhardt or Oldenberg as his
supporters (1. xvi.). Now, without making absurd
imputations, I do not reckon Mannhardt a thorough
partisan of Mr. Max Mliller. I could not put our
theory so well as Mannhardt puts it. ' The study of
the lower races is an invaluable instrument for the
interpretation of the survivals from earlier stages,
which we meet in the full civilisation of cultivated
peoples, but which arose in the remotest fetishism
and savagery.'

Like Mr. Max Midler, I do not care for the vague
word ' fetishism,' otherwise Mannhardt's remark ex-
actly represents my own position, the anthropological

42 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

position.^ Now, Mr. Max Mllller does not like that
position. That position he assails. It was Mann-
hardt's, however, when he wrote the book quoted,
and, so far, Mannhardt was not absolutely one of
Mr. Max Miiller's ' supporters ' — unless I am one. ' I
have even been accused,' says Mr. Max Mliller, ' of
intentionally ignoring or suppressing Mannhardt's
labours. How charitable! ' (1. xvii.) I trust, from
our author's use of the word todtschiveigen, that this
uncharitable charge was made in Germany.

Mannhardt

Mannhardt, for a time, says Mr. Max Mliller,
' expressed his mistrust in some of the results
of comparative mythology ' (1. xvii.). Indeed, I
myself quote him to that very effect.^ Not only
' some of the results,' but the philological method
itself was distrusted by Mannhardt, as by Curtius.
' The failure of the method in its practical work-
ing lies in a lack of the historical sense,' says
Mannhardt.^ Mr. Max Mliller may have, probably
has, referred to these sayings of Mannhardt ; or,
if he has not, no author is obliged to mention
everybody who disagrees with him. Mannhardt's
method was mainly that of folklore, not of philology.
He examined peasant customs and rites as ' survivals '
of the oldest paganism. Mr. Frazer applies Mannhardt's
rich lore to the explanation of Greek and other rites
in 77ie Golden Bough, that entrancing book. Such
was Mannhardt's position (as I shall prove at large)
when he was writhior his most famous works. But

he 'returned at last to his old colours ' (1. xvii.) in

' W. u. F. K. xxiii. - M. R. li. i. 2i5.

^ W. it. F. K. xvii.

iv] MANNHARDT 43

Die lettischen Sonnenmythen (1875). In 1880 Mann-
hardt died. Mr. Max MliUer does not say whether
Mannhardt, before a decease deeply regretted, re-
canted his heretical views about the philological
method, and his expressed admiration of the study
of the lower races as ' an invaluable instrument.'
One would gladly read a recantation so important.
But Mr. Max MliUer does tell us that ' if I did not
refer to his work in my previous contributions to
the science of mythology the reason was simple enough.
It was not, as has been suggested, ni}' wish to sup-
press it [todtschiveigen), but simply my want of know-
ledge of the materials with which he dealt ' (German
popular customs and traditions) ' and therefore the
consciousness of my incompetence to sit in judg-
ment on his labours.' Again, we are told that there
was no need of criticism or praise of Mannhardt. He
had Mr. Frazer as his prophet — but not till ten years
after his death.

Mannhardt's Letters

' Mannhardt's state of mind with regard to the
general principles of comparative philology has been
so exactly my own,' says Mr. Max MliUer, that he cites
Mannhardt's letters to prove the fact. But as to the
application to myth of the principles of comparative
philology, Mannhardt speaks of ' the lack of the
historical sense ' displayed in the practical employ-
ment of the method. This, at least, is ' not exactty '
Mr. Max Mliller's own view. Probably he refers to
the later period when Mannhardt ' returned to his
old colours.'

The letters of Mannhardt, cited in proof of
his exact agreement with Mr. Max MliUer about

44 MODEKN MYTHOLOGY [iv

comparative philology, do not, as far as quoted,
mention the subject of comparative philology at all
(1. xviii-xx.). Possibly ' philology' is here a slip of
the pen, and ' mythology ' may be meant.

Mannhardt says to Miillenhoff (May 2, 1876) that
he has been uneasy ' at the extent which sun myths
threaten to assume in my comparisons.' He is
opening ' a new point of view ; ' materials rush in,
' so that the sad danger seemed inevitable of eveiy-
thing becoming everything.' In Mr. Max Midler's
own words, written long ago, he expressed his
dread, not of ' everything becoming everything ' (a
truly Heraclitean state of affairs), but of the ' omni-
present Sun and the inevitable Dawn appearing in ever
so many disguises.' ' Have we not,' he asks, ' arrived
both at the same conclusion ? ' Eeally, I do not
know ! Had Mannhardt quite cashiered ' the corn-
spirit,' who, perhaps, had previously threatened to
' become everything ' ? He is still in great vigour, in
Mr. Frazer's Golden Bough, and Mr. Frazer is Mann-
hardt's disciple. But where, all this time, is there a
reference by Mannhardt to ' the general principles of
comparative philology ' P Where does he accept ' the
omnipresent Sun and the inevitable Dawn ' ? Why,
he says the reverse ; he says in this letter that he is
immeasurably removed from accepting them at all as
Mr. Max Miiller accepts them !

' I am very far from looking upon all myths as
psychical reflections of physical phenomena, still less
as of exclusively solar or meteorological phenomena,
like Kuhn, Schwartz, Max Midler and their school.'
What a queer way of expressing his agreement with
Mr. Max Midler !

The Professor expostulates with Mannhardt

iv] MANNHARDT 45

(1. XX.) : — ' Where lias any one of us ever done this ? '
Well, when Mannhardt said ' all myths,' he wrote
colloquially. Shall we say that he meant ' most
myths,' ' a good many myths,' ' a myth or two here
and there ' ? Whatever he meant, he meant that he
was ' still more than very far removed from looking
upon all myths ' as Mr. Max Mliller does.

Mannhardt's next passage I quote entire and
textually from Mr. Max MuUer's translation ; —

' I have learnt to appreciate poetical and literary
production as an essential element in the develop-
ment of mythology, and to draw and utilise the
consequences arising from this state of things.
[Who has not ?] But, on the other hand, I hold it
as quite certain that a portion of the older myths
arose from nature poetry which is no longer directly
intelligible to us, but has to be interpreted by means
of analogies. Nor does it follow that these myths
betray any historical identity ; they only testify to
the same kind of conception and tendency prevailing
on similar stages of development. Of these nature
myths some have reference to the life and the cir-
cumstances of the sun, and our first steps towards
an understanding of them are helped on by such
nature poetry as the Lettish, which has not yet
been obscured by artistic and poetical reflexion.
In that poetry mythical personalities confessedly
belonging to a solar sphere are transferred to a
large number of poetical representatives, of which
the explanation must consequently be found in the
same (solar) sphere of nature. My method here is
just the same as that applied by me to the Tree-
cult.'

Mr. Max Mliller asks, ' Where is there any

46 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

difference between this, the latest and final system
adopted by Mannhardt, and my own system which I
put forward in 1856 ? '(1. xxi.)

How Mannhardt differs from Mr. Max Miiller

I propose to show wherein the difference lies.
Mannhardt says, ' My method is just the same as
that applied by me to the Tree-cult.' What was that
method ?

Mannhardt, in the letter quoted by Mr. Max
Miiller, goes on to describe it ; but Mr. Max Miiller
omits the description, probably not realising its
importance. For Mannhardt's method is the reverse
of that practised under the old colours to which he
is said to have returned.

Mannhardt's Method

' My method is here the same as in the Tree-
cult. I start from a given collection of facts, of
which the central idea is distinct and generally
admitted, and consequently offers a firm basis for
explanation. I illustrate from this and from well-
founded analogies. Continuing from these, I seek to
elucidate darker things. I search out the simplest
radical ideas and perceptions, the germ-cells from
whose combined growth mythical tales form them-
selves in very different ways.'

Mr. Frazer gives us a similar description of
Mannhardt's method, whether dealing with sun myths
or tree myths.^ ' Mannhardt set himself systematically
to collect, compare, and explain the living super-
stitions of the peasantry.' Now Mr. Max Miiller has
just confessed, as a reason for incompetence to criti-
cise Mannhardt's labours, ' my want of knowledge

' Golden Bougli, 1. ix.

iv] MANNHARDT 47

of the materials with which he dealt — the popular
customs and traditions of Germany.' And yet he
asks where there is any difference between his
system and Mannhardt's. Manuhardt's is the study
of rural survival, the system of folklore. Mr. Max
Midler's is the system of comparative philology about
which in this place Mannhardt does not say one
single word. Mannhardt interprets some myths
' arising from nature poetry, no longer intelligible to
us,' by analogies ; Mr. Max Muller interprets them by
etymologies.

The difference is incalculable ; not that Mann-
hardt always abstains from etymologising.

Another Claim on Mannhardt

While maintaining that ' all comparative mytho-
logy must rest on comparison of names as its most
certain basis ' (a system which Mannhardt declares
explicitly to be so fai- ' a failure ' ), Mr. Max Muller
says, ' It is well known that in his last, nay posthu-
mous essay, Mannhardt, no mean authority, returned
to the same conviction.' I do not know which is
Mannhardt's very last essay, but I shall prove that
in the posthumous essays Mannhardt threw cold water
on the whole method of philological comparative
mythology.

However, as proof of Mannhardt's return to Mr.
Max Miiller's convictions, our author cites Mytho-
logische Forschungeii (pp. 86-113).

What Mannhardt said

In the passages here produced as proof of Mann-
hardt's conversion, he is not investigating a myth
at all, or a name which occurs in mythology. He is

48 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

trying to discover the meaning of the practices of the
Lupercalia at Eome. In February, says Dionysius
of HaUcarnassus, the Eomans held a popular festival,
and lads ran round naked, save for skins of victims,
whipping the spectators. Mannhardt, in his usual
way, collects all the facts first, and then analyses the
name Luperci. This does not make him a philo-
logical mythologist. To take a case in point, at
Selkirk and Queensferry the bounds are ridden, or
walked, by ' Burleymen ' or ' Burrymen.' ^ After
examining the facts we examine the words, and ask,
' Why Burle}^ or Burry men ? ' At Queensferry, by
a folk etymology, one of the lads wears a coat
stuck over with burrs. But ' Borough-men ' seems
the probable etymology. As we examine the names
Burley, or Burry men, so Mannhardt examines the
name Luperci ; and if a true etymology can be dis-
covered, it will illustrate the original intention of the
Lupercalia (p. 86).

He would like to explain the Lupercalia as a
popular play, representing the spirits of vegetation
opposing the spirits of infertility. ' But we do not
forget that our whole theory of the development of
the rite rests on a hypothesis which the lack of
materials prevents us from demonstrating.' He would
explain Luperci as Lupiherci — 'wolf-goats.' Over
this we need not linger ; but how does all this prove
Mannhardt to have returned to the method of com-
paring Greek with Vedic divine names, and arriving
thence at some celestial phenomenon as the basis of
a terrestrial myth ? Yet he sometimes does this.

' iT€piek6eiv bpofxo) rrju Koijxrjv. Dionys. i. 80.

it] mannhaedt 49

My Relations to Mannhardt

If anything could touch and move an unawak-
ened anthropologist it would be the conversion
of Mannhardt. My own relations with his ideas
have the interest of illustrating mental coincidences.
His name does not occur, I think, in the essay,
'The Method of Folklore,' in the first edition of
my Custom and Myth. In that essay I take, as
an example of the method, the Scottish and
Northumbrian Kernabahy, the puppet made out of
the last gleanings of harvest. This I compared to
the Greek Demeter of the harvest-home, with sheaves
and poppies in her hands, in the immortal Seventh
Idyll of Theocritus. Our Kernababy, I said, is a
stunted survival of our older ' Maiden,' ' a regular
image of the harvest goddess,' and I compared
Kopri. Next I gave the parallel case from ancient
Peru, and the odd accidental coincidence that there
the maize was styled Mama Cora (fX7]Tr)p Koprj !).

In entire ignorance of Mannhardt's corn-spirit,
or corn-mother, I was following Mannhardt's track.
Indeed, Mr. Max MllUer has somewhere remarked
that I popularise Mannhardt's ideas. Naturally he
could not guess that the coincidence was accidental
and also inevitable. Two men, unknown to each
other, were using the same method on the same facts.

Mannhardt's Rettirn to his old Colours

If, then, Mannhardt was re-converted, it would
be a potent argument for my conversion. But one is
reminded of the re-conversion of Prince Charles. In
1750 he 'deserted the errors of the Church of Eome

50 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ly

for those of the Church of England.' Later he
returned, or affected to return, to the ancient faith.
A certain Cardinal seemed contented therewith, and,
as the historian remarks, ' was clearly a man not
difficult to please.' Mr. Max Milller reminds me of
the good Cardinal. I do not feel so satisfied as he
does of Mannhardt's reconversion.

Mannhardt's Attitude to Philology

We have heard Mannhardt, in a letter partly-
cited by Mr. Max Miiller, describe his own method.
He begins with what is certain and intelligible, a
mass of popular customs. These he explains by
analogies. He passes from the known to the obscure.
Philological mythologists begin with the unknown,
the name of a god. This they analyse, extract a
meaning, and (proceeding to the known) fit the facts
of the god's legend into the sense of his name. The
methods are each other's opposites, yet the letter in
which Mannhardt illustrates this fact is cited as a
proof of his return to his old colours.

Irritating Conduct of Mannhardt

Nothing irritates philological mythologists so
much, nothing has injured them so much in the
esteem of the public which ' goes into these things a
little,' as the statement that their competing etymo-
logies and discrepant interpretations of mythical
names are mutually destructive. I have been told
that this is ' a mean arsfument.' But if one chemical
analyst found bismuth where another found iridium,
and a third found argon, the public would begin to
look on chemistry without enthusiasm ; still more so

it] lAIANNHARDT 5 1

if one chemist rarely found anything but inevitable
bismuth or omnipresent iridium. Now Mannhardt
uses this ' mean argument.'

Mannhardt on Demeter Erinnys

In a posthumous work, Mythologische Forschungen
(1884), the work from which Mr. Max Muller cites
the letter to MlillenhofF, Mannhardt discusses Demeter
Erinnys. She is the Arcadian goddess, who, in the
form of a mare, became mother of Despoina and the
horse Arion, by Poseidon.^ Her anger at the un-
handsome behaviour of Poseidon caused Demeter to
be called Erinnys — ' to be angry ' being ipLvveiv in
Arcadian — a folk-etymology, clearly. Mannhardt
first dives deep into the sources for this fable. '^
Arion, he decides, is no mythological personification,
but a poetical ideal {Bezeichnung) of the war-horse.
Legend is ransacked for proof of this. Poseidon is the
lord of wind and wave. Now, there are waves of corn,
under the wind, as well as waves of the sea. When
the Suabian rustic sees the wave running over the
corn, he says. Da lauft das Pferd, and Greeks before
Homer would say, in face of the billowing corn,
'EKeWi OeovG-L lttttol, There run horses ! And Homer
himself^ says that the horses of Erichthonius, children
of Boreas, ran over cornfield and sea. We ourselves
speak of sea-waves as ' white horses.' So, to be
brief, Mannhardt explains the myth of Demeter
Erinnys becoming, as a mare, a mother by Poseidon
as a horse, thus, ' Poseidon Hippios, or Poseidon in
horse's form, rushes through the growing grain and

^ Pausanias, viii. 25. - Myth. Forscli. p. 244.

3 Iliad, XX. 226.

E 2

52 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [it

weds Demeter,' and he cites peasant proverbs, such
as Das Korn lieirathet ; das Korn feiert Hochzeit
(p. 264). ' This is the germ of the Arcadian Saga.'

' The Arcadian myth of Demeter Erinnys is un-
deniably a blending of the epic tradition [of the ideal
war-horse] with the local cult of Demeter. ... It
is a probable hypothesis that the belief in the wed-
dino' of Demeter and Poseidon comes from the sio^ht
of the waves passing over the cornfield. . . .' ^

It is very neat ! But a certain myth of Loki
in horse-form comes into memory, and makes me
wonder how Mannhardt would have dealt with that
too liberal narrative.

Loki, as a mare (he being a male god), became,
by the horse of a giant, the father of Sleipnir, Odin's
eight-footed steed. Mr. W. A. Craigie supphes this
note on Loki's analogy with Poseidon, as a horse, in
the waves of corn : —

' In North Jutland, when the vapours are seen
going with a wavy motion along the earth in the
heat of summer, they say, " Loki is sowing oats to-
day," or "Loki is driving his goats."

' N.B. — Oats in Danish are havre, which suggests
O.N. A«/rar, goats. Modern Icelandic has hafrar =oiits,
but the word is not found in the old language.'

Is Loki a corn-spirit ?

Mannhardt' s 'Mean Argument'

Mannhardt now examines the explanations of
Demeter Erinnys, and her legend, given by Preller,
E. Curtius, 0. Miiller, A. Kuhn, W. Sonne, Max

' Myth. Forsch. p. 265-

ir>^

iv] MANNHARDT 53

Mliller, E. Burnouf, de Gubernatis, Schwartz, and
H. D. Mliller. ' Here,' he cries, ' is a variegated list
of hypotheses ! ' Demeter is

Storm-cloitd

Sun Goddess

Earth and Moon Goddess

Dawn

Night.

Sea

Storm God
Cloud-hidden Sun
Bain God.

Poseidon is

Despoina is

Bain

Thunder

Moon.

Arion, the horse, is

Erinnys is

Lightning

Sun

Thunder -horse.

Storyn-cloud
Bed Dawn.

Mannhardt decides, after this exhibition of
guesses, that the Demeter legends cannot be explained
as refractions of any natural phenomena in the
heavens (p. 275). He concludes that the myth of
Demeter Erinnys, and the parallel Vedic story of
Saranyu (who also had an amour as a mare), are
' incongruous,' and that neither sheds any light on
the other. He protests against the whole tendency
to find prototypes of all Aryan myths in the Veda,
and to think that, with a few exceptions, all
mythology is a terrestrial reflection of celestial
phenomena (p. 280). He then goes into the con-

54 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

tending etymologies of Demeter, and decides (' for
the man was mortal and had been a ' philologer) in
favour of his own guess, ^eta Srj + y^ririqp == ' Corn-
mother ' (p. 294).

This essay on Demeter was written by Mannhardt
in the summer of 1877, a year after the letter which
is given as evidence that he had ' returned to his old
colours.' The essay shows him using the philological
string of ' variegated hypotheses ' as anything but an
argument in favour of the philological method. On the
other hand, he warns us against the habit, so common
in the philological school, of looking for prototypes of
all Aryan myths in the Veda, and of finding in most
mj^ths a reflection on earth of phenomena in the
heavens, Erinnys being either Storm-cloud or Dawn,
according to the taste and fancy of the inquirer. We
also find Mannhardt, in 1877, starting from the known
— legend and rural survival in phrase and custom —
and so advancing to the unknown — the name Demeter.
The philologists commence with the unknown, the
old name, Demeter Erinnys, explain it to taste, and
bring the legend into harmony with their explana-
tion. I cannot say, then, that I share Mr. Max
Mliller's impression. I do not feel sure that Mann-
hardt did return to his old colours.

Wliy Mannhardt is Thought to have been Converted

Mannhardt's friend, Miillenhoff, had an aversion to
solar myths. He said : ^ ' I deeply mistrust all these
combinations of the new so-called comparative mytho-
logy.' Mannhardt was preparing to study Lithu-
anian solar myths, based on Lithuanian and Lettish
marriage songs. Miillenhoff and Scherer seem to have

' September 19, 1875. Myth. Forsch. xiv.

iv] MANNHARDT 55

thought this work too solar for their taste. Mann-
harclt therefore replied to their objections in the
letter quoted in part by Mr. Max Mliller. Mannhardt
was not the man to neglect or suppress solar myths
when he found them, merely because he did not
believe that a great many other mj^ths which had
been claimed as celestial were solar. Like every
sensible person, he knew that there are numerous
real, obvious, confessed solar myths not derived from
a disease of language. These arise from (1) the
impulse to account for the doings of the Sun by
telling a story about him as if he were a person ;
(2) from the natural poetry of the human mind.^
What we think they are not shown to arise from is
forgetfulness of meanings of old words, which, ex
hy2wthesi, have become proper names.

That is the theory of the philological school, and
to that theory, to these colours, I see no proof (in
the evidence given) that Mannhardt had returned.
But ' the scalded child dreads cold water,' and
MlillenhofF apparently dreaded even real solar
myths. Mr. Max Mliller, on the other hand (if I
do not misinterpret him), supposes that Mannhardt
had returned to the philological method, partly
because he was interested in real solar myths and in
the natural poetry of illiterate races.

Mannhardt's Final Confession

Mannhardt's last work published in his life days
was Antike Wald- und Feldkidte (1877). In the pre-
face, dated November 1, 1876 [after the famous letter
of May 1876), he explains the growth of his views
and criticises his predecessors. After doing justice

' For undeniable solar myths see M. B. B. i. 124-135,

56 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

to Kuhn and his comparisons of European with
Indian myths, he says that, in his opinion, compara-
tive Indo-Germanic mythology has not yet borne the
expected fruits. ' The assured gains shrink into very
few divine names, such as Dyaus — Zeus — Tins,
Parjany — Perkunas, Bhaga — Bug, Varuna — Uranus,
&c.' I wish he had completed the list included
in &c. Other equations, as Sarameya=Hermeias,
Saranyu=Demeter Erinnys, he fears will not stand
close criticism. He dreads that jeux d' esprit [geistvolle
Spiele des Witzes) may once more encroach on science.
Then, after a lucid statement of Mr. Max Mliller's
position, he says, ' Ich vermag dem von M. Miiller
aufgestellten Principe, wenn liberhaupt eine, so doch
nur eine sehr beschrankte Geltung zuzug-estehen.'

' To the principle of Max Miiller I can only assign
a very limited value, if any value at all.' ^

' Taken all in all, I consider the greater part of
the results hitherto obtained in the field of Indo-Ger-
manic comparative mythology to be, as yet, a failure,
premature or incomplete, my own efforts in German
Myths (1858) included. That I do not, however,
" throw out the babe with the bath," as the proverb
goes, my essay on Lettish sun myths in Bastian-Hart-
mann's Ethnological Journal will bear witness.'

Such is Mannhardt's conclusion. Taken in con-
nection with his still later essay on Demeter, it really
leaves no room for doubt. There, I think, he does
' throw out the child with the bath,' throw the
knife after the handle. I do not suppose that Mr.
Max MuUer ever did quote Mannhardt as one of his
supporters, but such a claim, if really made, would
obviously give room for criticism.

' Op. cit. p. XX.

iv] ' MANJ^HARDT 57

Mannhardt on Solar Myths

What the attitude of Mannhardt was, in 1877 and
later, we have seen. He disbelieves in the philo-
logical system of explaining myths by etymological
conjectures. He disbelieves in the habit of finding,
in myths of terrestrial occurrences, reflections of
celestial phenomena. But earlier, in his long essay
Die lettischen Sonnenmythen (in Zeitschrift fiir Ethno-
logie, 1875), he examines the Lettish popular songs
about the Sun, the Sun's daughters, the god-sons, and
so forth. Here, of course, he is dealing w^ith popular
songs explicitly devoted to solar phenomena, in
their poetical aspect. In the Lettish Sun-songs and
Sun-myths of the peasants we see, he says, a myth-
world ' in process of becoming,' in an early state of
development, as in the Veda (p. 325). But, we may
reply, in the Veda, myths are already full-grown,
or even decadent. Already there are unbelievers in
the myths. Thus we would say, in the Veda we
have (1) myths of nature, formed in the remote
past, and (2) poetical phrases about heavenly pheno-
mena, which resemble the nature-poetry of the Letts,
but which do not become full-grown myths. The
Lett songs, also, have not developed into myths, of
which (as in the Apollo and Daphne story, by Mr.
Max MllUer's hypothesis) the original meaning is lost.

In the Lett songs we have a mass of nature-pictures
— the boat and the apples of the Sun, the red cloak hung
on the oak-tree, and so on ; pictures by which it is
sought to make elemental phenomena intelligible, by
comparison with familiar things. Behind the pheno-
mena are, in popular belief, personages — mythical
personages — the Sun as ' a magnified non-natural

58 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [rv

man,' or woman ; the Sun's mother, daughters, and
other heavenly people. Their conduct is ' motived '
in a human way. Stories are told about them: the
Sun kills the Moon, who revives.

All this is perfectly familiar everywhere. Savages,
in their fables, account for solar, lunar, and similar
elemental processes, on the theory that the heavenly
bodies are, and act like, human beings. The Eskimo
myth of the spots on the Moon, marks of ashes thrown
by the Sun in a love-quarrel, is an excellent example.
But in all this there is no ' disease of language.'
These are frank nature-myths, ' setiological,' giving a
fabulous reason for facts of nature.

Mannhardt on Marchen

But Mannhardt goes farther. He not only recog-
nises, as everyone must do, the Sun, as explicitly
named, when he plays his part in myth, or popular
tale (Marchen). He thinks that even when the Sun
is not named, his presence, and reference to him, and
derivation of the incidents in Marchen from solar
myth, may sometimes be detected with great prob-
ability (pp. 326, 327). But he adds, ' not that every
Marchen contains a reference to Nature ; that I am
far from asserting ' (p. 327).

Now perhaps nobody will deny that some
incidents in Marchen may have been originally
suggested by nature-myths. The all-swallowing
and all-disgorging beast, wolf, or ogre, may have
been derived from a view of Night as the all-
swallower. But to disengage natural phenomena,
mythically stated, from the human tangle of Marchen,
to find natural phenomena in such a palimpsest as
Perrault's courtly and artificial version of a French

iv] MANNHARDT 59

popular tale, is a delicate and dangerous task. In
many stories a girl lias three balls- — one of silver, one
of gold, one of diamond — which she offers, in succes-
sion, as bribes. This is a perfectly natural invention.
It is perilous to connect these balls, gifts of ascending
value, with the solar apple of iron, silver, and gold
(p. 103 and note 5). It is perilous, and it is quite
unnecessary. Some one — Gubernatis, I think — has
explained the naked sword of Aladdin, laid between
him and the Sultan's daughter in bed, as the silver
sickle of the Moon. Eeally the sword has an obvious
purpose and meaning, and is used as a symbol in
proxy-marriages. The blood shed by Achilles in his
latest victories is elsewhere explained as red clouds
round the setting Sun, which is conspicuously childish.
Mannhardt leans, at least, in this direction.

' The Two Brothers '

Mannhardt takes the old Egyptian tale of ' The
Two Brothers,' Bitiou and Anepou. This fable, as old,
in actual written literature, as Moses, is a complex
of half the Mcirchen plots and incidents in the world.
It opens with the formula of Potiphar's Wife. The
falsely accused brother flies, and secretes his life, or
separable soul, in a flower of the mystic Vale of
Acacias. This aflair of the separable soul may be
studied in Mr. Hartland's Perseus, and it animates,
as we shall see, Mr. Frazer's theory of the Origin of
Totemism. A golden lock of the wicked wife's hair
is then borne by the Nile to the king's palace
in Egypt. He will insist on marrying the lady of
the lock. Here we are in the Cinderella formula,
en plein, which may be studied, in African and

6o MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

Santhal shapes, in Miss Coxe's valuable Cinderella}
Pharaoh's wise men decide that the owner of the
lock of hair is (like Egyptian royalty at large) a
daughter of the Sun-god (p. 239). Here is the Sun,
in all his glory ; but here we are dealing with a
literary version of the Mdrchen, accommodated to
royal tastes and Egyptian ideas of royalty by a
royal scribe, the courtty Perrault of the Egyptian
Roi-Soleil. Who can say what he introduced ? — while
we can say that the Sun-god is absent in South
African and Santhal and other variants. The Sun
may have slipped out here, may have been slipped in
there ; the faintest glimmer of the historical sense
prevents us from dogmatising.

Wedded to Pharaoh, the wicked wife, pursuing
her vengeance on Bitiou, cuts down his life-tree.
Anepou, his brother, however, recovers his concealed
heart (life), and puts it in water. Bitiou revives. He
changes himself into the sacred Bull, Apis — a feature
in the story which is practically possible in Egypt
alone. The Bull tells the king his story, but the
wicked wife has the Bull slain, as by Cambyses in
Herodotus. Two of his blood-drops become two
persea trees. One of them confesses the fact to the
wicked wife. She has them cut down ; a chip flies
into her mouth, she becomes a mother by the chip,
the boy (Bitiou) again becomes king, and slays his
mother, the wicked wife.

In the tree, any tree, acacia or persea, Mannhardt
wishes to recognise the Sun-tree of the Lett songs.
The red blossoms of the persea tree are a symbol of
the Sun-tree : of Horus. He compares features, not
always very (dosely analogous, in European Mlirchen.

' Folk Lore Society.

iv] MANNHARDT 6 1

For example, a girl hides in a tree, like Charles II. at
Boscobel. That is not really analogous with Bitiou's
separable life in the acacia ! ' Anepou ' is like
' Anapu,' Anubis. The Bull is the Sun, is Osiris — dead
in winter. Mr. Frazer, Mannhardt's disciple, protests
a grands oris against these identifications when made
by others than Mannhardt, who says, ' The Mdrchen is
an old obscure solar myth ' (p. 242). To others the
story of Bitiou seems an Egyptian literary complex,
based on a popular set of tales illustrating furens
quid femina possit, and illustrating the world-wide
theory of the separable life, dragging in formulas
from other Mdrchen, and giving to all a thoroughly
classical Egyptian colouring.^ Solar myths, we
think, have not necessarily anything to make in the
matter.

The Golden Fleece

Mannhardt reasons in much the same way
about the Golden Fleece. This is a peculiarly
Greek feature, interwoven with the world-wide
Mdrchen of the Lad, the Giant's helpful daughter,
her aid in accomplishing feats otherwise impossible,
and the pursuit of the pair by the father. I have
studied the story — as it occurs in Samoa, among Eed
Indian tribes, and elsewhere — in ' A Far-travelled
Tale.' '^ In our late Greek versions the Quest of the
Fleece of Gold occurs, but in no other variants
known to me. There is a lamb (a boy changed into
a lamb) in Eomaic. His fleece is of no interest to
anybody. Out of his body grows a tree with a
golden apple. Sun-yarns occur in popular songs.

' Von einein dcr vorziigliclisten Schriftgelehrten, Annana, in
Jclassischer Darstellung aufgezeichneten Mdrchens, p. 240.
"^ Custom and Myth.

62 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iv

Maiinliardt (pp. 282, 283) abounds in solar explana-
tions of the Fleece of Gold, hanging on the oak-tree
in the dark ^£ean forest. Idyia, wife of the
Colchian king, ' is clearly the Dawn.' Aia is the
isle of the Sun. Helle=Surya, a Sanskrit Sun-goddess ;
the golden ram off whose back she falls, while her
brother keeps his seat, is the Sun. Her brother,
Phrixus, may be the Daylight. The oak-tree in
Colchis is the Sun-tree of the Lettish songs. Perseus
is a hero of Light, born in the Dark Tower (Night)
from the shower of gold (Sun-rays).

' We can but say " it may be so," ' but who could
explain all the complex Perseus-saga as a statement
about elemental phenomena ? Or how can the Far-
travelled Tale of the Lad and the Giant's Daughter be
interpreted to the same effect, above all in the count-
less examples where no Fleece of Gold occurs ? The
Greek tale of Jason is made up of several 3Idrchen,
as is the Odyssey, by epic poets. These Mdrchen
have no necessary connection with each other ; they
are tagged on to each other, and localised in Greece and
on the Euxine.^ A poetic popular view of the Sun may
have lent the peculiar, and elsewhere absent, incident
of the quest of the Fleece of Gold on the shores
of the Black Sea. The old epic poets may have
borrowed from popular songs like the Lettish chants
(p. 328). A similar dubious adhesion may be given
by us in the case of Castor and Polydeuces (Morning
and Evening Stars ?), and Helen (Dawn)," and the
Hesperides (p. 234). The germs of the myths mmj
be popular poetical views of elemental phenomena.
But to insist on elemental allegories through all the

1 See Preface to Mrs. Hunt's translation of Grimm's Mcirchen.

2 P. 309.

, ly] MANNHARDT 63

legends of the Dioskouroi, and of the Trojan war,
would be to strain a hypothesis beyond the breaking-
point. Much, very much, is epic invention, unver-
hennhar das werk der Dichter (p. 328).

Mannhardt's Approach to Mr. Max Miiller

In this essay on Lettish Sun-songs (1875) Mann-
hardt comes nearest to Mr. Max Mliller. He cites
passages from him with approval (cf. pp. 814, 322).
His explanations, by aid of Sun-songs, of certain
features in Greek mythology are plausible, and may
be correct. But we turn to Mannhardt's exjolicit
later statement of his own position in 1877, and
to his posthumous essays, published in 1884 ; and,
on the whole, we find, in ni}^ opinion, much more
diiference from than agreement with the Oxford
Professor, whose Dawn-Daphne and other equations
Mannhardt dismisses, and to whose general results
(in mythology) he assigns a value so restricted. It
is a popular delusion that the anthropological
mythologists deny the existence of solar myths, or
of nature-myths in general. These are extremely
common. What we demur to is the explanation of
divine and heroic myths at large as solar or elemental,
when the original sense has been lost by the ancient
narrators, and when the elemental explanation rests
on conjectural and conflicting etymologies and inter-
pretations of old proper names — Athene, Hera, Ar-
temis, and the rest. Nevertheless, while Mannhardt,
in his works on Tree-cult, and on Field and Wood
Cult, and on the ' Corn Demon,' has wandered far from
' his old colours ' — while in his posthumous essays he
is even more of a deserter, his essay on Lettish Sun-

64 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [iy

myths shows an undeniable tendency to return to
Mr. Max Mllller's camp. This was what made his
friends so anxious. It is probably wisest to form our
opinion of his final attitude on his preface to his last
book publislied in his life-time. In that the old
colours are not exactly his chosen banner ; nor can
the flag of the philological school be inscribed tandem
triumphans.

In brief, Mannhardt's return to his old colours
(1875-76) seems to have been made in a mood
from which he again later passed away. But either
modern school of mythology may cite him as an
ally in one or other of his phases of opinion.

PHILOLOGY AND DEMETER EBINNYS

Mr. Max Mliller on Demeter Erinnys.

Like Mannhardt, our author in his new treatise
discusses the strange old Arcadian myth of the
horse-Demeter Erinnys (ii. 537). He tells the un-
seemly tale, and asks why the Earth goddess became
a mare ? Then he gives the analogous myth from
the Eig-Veda/ which, as it stands, is ' quite unin-
telligible.' But Yaska explains that Saranyu, daughter
of Tvashtri, in the form of a mare, had twins by
Vivasvat, in the shape of a stallion. Their offspring
were the Asvins, who are more or less analogous in
their helpful character to Castor and Pollux. Now,
can it be by accident that Saranyu in the Veda
is Erinnys in Greek ? To this ' equation,' as we
saw, Mannhardt demurred in 1877. Who was
Saranyu ? Yaska says ' the Night ; ' that was Yaska's
idea. Mr. Max Mliller adds, ' I think he is right,'
and that Saranyu is ' the grey dawn ' (ii. 541).

' But,' the bewildered reader exclaims, ' Dawn is
one thing and Night is quite another.' So Yaska
himself was intelligent enough to observe, 'Night
is the wife of Aditya ; she vanishes at sunrise.'
However, Night in Mr. Max Miiller's system
' has just got to be ' Dawn, a position proved

1 X. 17. Cf. Muir, SanslirU Texts, v. 277.

66 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [v

thus : ' Yaska makes this clear by saying that
the time of the Asvins, sons of Saranyu, is after
midnight/ but that ' when darkness prevails over
light, that is Madhyama ; when light prevails over
darkness, that is Aditya,' both being Asvins. They
(the Asvins) are, in fact, darkness and light ; and
therefore, I understand, Saranyu, who is Night, and
not an Asvin at all, is Dawn! To make this per-
fectly clear, remember that the husband of Saranyu,
whom she leaves at sunrise, is — T give you three
guesses — is the Sun ! The Sun's wife leaves the Sun at
sunrise.^ This is proved, for Aditya is Vivasvat = tlie
Sun, and is the husband of Saranyu (ii. 541). These
methods of proving Night to be Dawn, while the
substitute for both in the bed of the Sun ' may have
been meant for the gloaming ' (ii. 542), do seem to' be
geistvolle Spiele des Witzes, ingenious jeux (f esprit,
as Mannhardt says, rather than logical arguments.

But we still do not know how the horse and
mare came in, or why the statue of Demeter had a
horse's head. ' This seems simply to be due to the
fact that, quite apart from this myth, the sun had,
in India at least, often been conceived as a horse ....
and the dawn had been likened to a mare.' But how
does this explain the problem? The Vedic poets
cited (ii. 542) either referred to the myth which we
have to explain, or they used a poetical expression,
knowing perfectly well what they meant. As long
as they knew what they meant, they could not make
an unseemly fable out of a poetical phrase. Not
till after the meaning was forgotten could the myth

' As the Sun's wife is Dawn, and leaves him at dawn, she is not
much of a bedfellow. As Night, however, she is a bedfellow of the
nocturnal Sun.

v] PHILOLOGY AND DEMETER ERINNYS 67

arise. But the myth existed already in the Veda !
And the unseemliness is precisely what we have to
account for ; that is our enigma.

Once more, Demeter is a goddess of Earth, not of
Dawn. How, then, does the explanation of a hypo-
thetical Dawn-myth apply to the Earth? Well,
perhaps the story, the unseemly story, was first told
of Erinnys (who also is ' the inevitable Dawn ') or of
Deo, ' and this name of Deo, or Dyava, was mixed up
with a hypokoristic form of Demeter, Deo, and thus
led to the transference of her story to Demeter.
I know this will sound very unlikely to Greek
scholars, yet I see no other way out of our diffi-
culties ' (ii. 545). Phonetic explanations follow.

' To my mind,' says our author, ' there is no
chapter in mythology in which we can so clearly
read the transition of an auroral myth of the Veda
into an epic chapter of Greece as in the chapter of
Saranyu (or Surama) and the Asvins, ending in the
chapter of Helena and her brothers, the Aioa-KopoL
XevKOTTcoXoL ' (ii. 642). Here, as regards the Asvins
and the Dioskouroi, Mannhardt may be regarded
as Mr. Max Midler's ally ; but compare his note,
A. F. u. W. K. p. XX.

My Theory of the Horse Demeter

Mannhardt, I think, ought to have tried at an
explanation of myths so closely analogous as those
two, one Indian, one Greek, in which a goddess, in
the shape of a mare, becomes mother of twins by
a god in the form of a stallion. As Mr. Max Mliller
well says, ' If we look about for analogies we find
nothing, as far as I know, corresponding to the

P 2

68 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [v

well-marked features of this barbarous myth among
any of the uncivilised tribes of the earth. If we did,
how we should rejoice ! Wliy, then, should we not
rejoice when we find the allusion in Eig Veda ? '
(x. 17, 1).

I do rejoice ! The ' song of triumph,' as Pro-
fessor Tiele says, will be found in M. R. R. ii. 266
(note), where I give the Vedic and other references.
I even asked why Mr. Max Milller did not produce
this proof of the identity of Saranyu and Demeter
Erinnys in his Selected Essays (pp. 401, 492).

I cannot explain why this tale was told both of
Erinnys and of Saranyu. Granting the certainty of
the etymological equation, Saranyu = Erinnys (which
Mannhardt doubted), the chances against fortuitous
coincidence may be reckoned by algebra, and Mr.
Edgeworth's trillions of trillions feebly express it.
Two goddesses, Indian and Greek, have, ex hypothesi,
the same name, and both, as mares, are mothers of
twins. Though the twins (in India the Asvins, in
Greek an ideal war-horse and a girl) differ in cha-
racter, still the coincidence is evidential. Explain it
I cannot, and, clearly as the confession may prove
my lack of scientific exactness, I make it candidly.

If I must offer a guess, it is that Greeks, and
Indians of India, inherited a very ordinary savage
idea. The gods in savage myths are usually beasts.
As beasts they beget anthropomorphic offspring.
This is the regular rule in totemism. In savage myths
we are not told ' a god ' (Apollo, or Zeus, or Poseidon)
' put on beast shape and begat human sons and
daughters ' (Helen, the Telmisseis, and so on). The
god in savage myths was a beast already, though
he could, of course, shift shapes like any ' medicine-

t] philology and DEMETER ERINNYS 69

mail,' or modern witch who becomes a hare. This
is not the exception but the rule in savage mytho-
logy. Anj^one can consult my Myth, Ritual, and
Religion, or Mr. Frazer's work Totemism, for abund-
ance of evidence. To Loki, a male god, prosecuting
his amours as a female horse, I have already alluded,
and in il/. R. R. give cases from the Satapatha
Brahmana.

The Saranyu-Erinnys myth dates, I presume, from
this savage state of fancy ; but why the story occurred
both in Greece and India, I protest that I cannot
pretend to explain, except on the hypothesis that the
ancestors of Greek and Vedic peoples once dwelt
together, had a common stock of savage fables, and
a common or kindred language. After their disper-
sion, the fables admitted discrepancies, as stories in
oral circulation occasionally do. This is the only
conjecture which I feel justified in suggesting to
account for the resemblances and incongruities
between the myths of the mare Demeter-Erinnys and
the mare Saranyu.

70 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

TOTEMISM

Totemism

To the strange and widely diffused institution of
' Totemism ' our author often returns. I shall deal
here with his collected remarks on the theme, the
more gladly as the treatment shows how very far
Mr. Max Mllller is from acting with a shadow of un-
fairness when he does not refer to special passages
in his opponent's books. He treats himself and his
own earlier works in the same fashion, thereby,
perhaps, weakening his argument, but also demon-
strating his candour, were any such demonstration
required.

On totems he opens (i. 7) —

' When we come to special cases we must not
imagine that much can be gained by using such
general terms as Animism, Totemism, Fetishism, &c.,
as solvents of mythological problems. To my mind,
all such general terms, not excluding even Darwinism
or Puseyism, seem most objectionable, because they
encourage vague thought, vague praise, or vague
blame.

' It is, for instance, quite possible to place all
worship of animal gods, all avoidance of certain
kinds of animal food, all adoption of animal names
as the names of men and families, under the wide

vi] TOTEMISM 7 1

and capacious cover of totemism. All theriolatiy
would thus be traced back to totemism, I am not
aware, however, that any Egyptologists have adopted
such a view to account for the animal forms of the
Egyptian gods. Sanskrit scholars would certainly
hesitate before seeing in Indra a totem because he
is called vr/shabha, or bull, or before attempting to
explain on this ground the abstaining from beef on
the part of orthodox Hindus [i. 7].'

Totemism Defined

I think I have defined totemism,^ and the reader
may consult Mr. Frazer's work on the subject, or Mr.
MacLennan's essays, or ' Totemism ' in the Encyclo-
pcedia Britannica. However, I shall define totemism
once more. It is a state of society and cult, found
most fully developed in Australia and North America,
in which sets of persons, believing themselves to
be akin by blood, call each such set by the name
of some plant, beast, or other class of objects
in nature. One kin may be wolves, another bears,
another cranes, and so on. Each kin derives its
kin-name from its beast, plant, or what not ; pays
to it more or less respect, usually abstains from
killing, eating, or using it (except in occasional
sacrifices) ; is apt to claim descent from or relation-
ship with it, and sometimes uses its efiigy on
memorial pillars, carved pillars outside huts, tattooed
on the skin, and perhaps in other ways not known
to me. In Australia and North America, where rules
are strict, a man may not marry a woman of his own
totem ; and kinship is counted through mothers in
many, but not in all, cases. Where all these notes

1 M. B. E. i. 58-81.

72 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

are combined we have totemism. It is plain that
two or three notes of it may survive where the others
have perished ; may survive in ritual and sacrifice/
and in bestial or semi-bestial gods of certain nomes,
or districts, in ancient Egypt ;- in Pictish names ;^ in
claims of descent from beasts, or gods in the shape
of beasts ; in the animals sacred to gods, as Apollo
or Artemis, and so on. Such survivals are possible
enough in evolution, but the evidence needs careful
examination. Animal attributes and symbols and
names in religion are not necessarily totemistic. Mr.
Max Muller asks if ' any Egyptologists have adop-
ted ' the totem theory. He is apparently oblivious
of Professor Sayce's reference to a prehistoric age,
' when the religious creed of Egypt was still
totemism.'

Dr. Codrington is next cited for the apparent
absence of totemism in the Solomon Islands and
Polynesia, and Professor Oldenberg as denying that
' animal names of persons and clans [necessarily ?]
imply totemism.' Who says that they do ? ' Clan
Chattan,' with its cat crest, may be based, not on a
totem, but on a popular etymology. Animal names
of individuals have nothing to do with totems. A
man has no business to write on totemism if he does
not know these facts.

What a Totem is
Though our adversary now abandons totems, he
returns to them elsewhere (i. 198-202). ' Totem is
the corruption of a term used by North American

^ See Robertson Smith on ' Semitic Eeligion.'

'^ See Sayce's Herodotus, p. 344.

^ See Rhys' Rhind Lectures ; I am not convinced by the evidence.

vi] TOTEMISM ^^

Indians in the sense of clan-mark or sign-board
(" ododam ").' The totem was originally a rude
emblem of an animal or other object ' placed by
North American Indians in front of their settlements.'

The Evidence for Sign-boards

Our author's evidence for sign-boards is from
an Ottawa Indian, and is published from his MS.
by Mr. Hoskyns Abrahall.^ The testimony is
of the greatest merit, for it appears to have first
seen the light in a Canadian paper of 1858. Now
in 1858 totems were only spoken of in Lafitau,
Long, and such old writers, and in Cooper's novels.
They had not become subjects of scientific di.spute,
so the evidence is uncontaminated by theory. The
Indians were, we learn, divided into [local?] tribes,
and these ' into sections or families according to
their ododams ' — devices, signs, in modern usage
' coats of arms.' [Perhaps ' crests ' would be a better
word.] All people of one ododam (apparently under
male kinship) lived together in a special section of
each villao-e. At the entrance to the enclosure was
the figure of an animal, or some other sign, set up on
the top of one of the posts. Thus everybody knew
what family dwelt in what section of the village.
Some of the families were called after their ododmn.
But the family with the bear ododam were called
Big Feet, not Bears. Sometimes parts of different
animals were ' quartered ' [my suggestion], and one
ododam was a small hawk and the fins of a
sturgeon.

We cannot tell, of course, on the evidence here,

' Academy, September 27, 1884.

74 MODEEN MYTHOLOGY [vi

whether ' Big Feet ' suggested ' Bear,' or vice versa,
or neither. But Mr. Frazer has remarked that
periphrases for sacred beasts, like ' Big Feet ' for
Bear, are not uncommon. Nor can we tell ' what
couple of ancestors ' a small hawk and a sturgeon's
fins represent, unless, perhaps, a hawk and a
sturgeon.^

For all this, Mr. Max Mliller suggests the explana-
tion that people who marked their abode with crow
or wolf might come to be called Wolves or Crows.^
Again, people might borrow beast names from the pre-
valent beast of their district, as Arkades,''J/)KTot, Bears,
and so evolve the myth of descent from Callisto
as a she-bear. ' All this, however, is only guesswork.'
The Snake Indians worship no snake. [The Snake
Indians are not a totem group, but a local tribe
named from the Snake Eiver, as we say, ' An Ettrick
man.'] Once more, the name-giving beast, say,
' Great Hare,' is explained by Dr. Brinton as ' the in-
evitable Dawn.' ^ ' Hasty writers,' remarks Dr. Brinton,
' say that the Indians claim descent from different
wild beasts.' For evidence I refer to that hasty
writer, Mr. Frazer, and his book, Totemism. For
a newly sprung up modern totem our author alludes
to a boat, among the Mandans, ' their totem, or
tutelary object of worship.' An object of worship,
of course, is not necessarily a totem ! Nor is a
totem by the definition (as a rule one of a class of
objects) anything Ijut a natural object. Mr. Max
Mliller wishes that ' those who write about totems
and totemism would tell us exactly what they mean
by these words.' I have told him, and indicated

1 Anth. Bel. p. 405. '^ Plantagenet, Planta genista. — A. L.

^ See M. B. B. ii. 56, for a criticism of this theory.

vi] TOTEMISM 75

better sources. I apply the word totemism to the
widely diffused savage institution which I have
defined.

More about Totems

The origin of totemism is unknown to me, as to
Mr. McLennan and Dr. Eobertson Smith, but Mr. Max
Mliller knows this origin. ' A totem is a clan-mark,
then a clan-name, then the name of the ancestor of a
clan, and lastly the name of something worshipped by
a clan ' (i. 201). ' All this applies in the first instance
to Eed Indians only.' Yes, and ' clan ' applies in the
first instance to the Scottish clans only ! When Mr.
Max Mliller speaks of ' clans ' among the Eed Indians,
he uses a word whose connotation differs from any-
thing known to exist in America. But the analogy
between a Scottish clan and an American totem-kin
is close enough to justify Mr. Max Mliller in speaking
of Eed Indian ' clans.' By parity of reasoning, the
analogy between the Australian Kohong and the
American totem is so complete that we may speak
of ' Totemism ' in Australia. It would be childish
to talk of ' Totemism ' in North America, ' Kobongism '
in Australia, ' Pacarissaism ' in the realm of the Incas :
totems, kobongs, and pacarissas all amounting to the
same thing, except in one point. I am not aware
that Australian blacks erect, or that the subjects of
the Incas, or that African and Indian and Asiatic
totemists, erected ' sign-boards ' anywhere, as the
Ottawa writer assures us that the Ottawas do, or
used to do. And, if they don't, how do we know
that kobongs and pacarissas were developed out of
sign-boards ?

76 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

Heraldry and Totems

The Ottawas are armigeri, are heraldic ; so
are the natives of Vancouver's Island, who have
wooden pillars with elaborate quarterings. Examples
are in South Kensington Museum. But this savage
heraldry is not nearly so common as the institution
of totemism. Thus it is difficult to prove that the
heraldry is the origin of totemism, which is just as
likely, or more likely, to have been the origin of
savage heraldic crests and quarterings. Mr. Max
Miiller allows that there may be other origins.

Gods and Totems

Our author refers to unnamed writers who call
Indra or Amnion a totem (i, 200).

This is a foolish liberty with language. ' Why
should not all the gods of Egypt with their heads
of bulls and apes and cats be survivals of totem-
isms ? ' Why not, indeed ? Professor Sayce remarks,
' They were the sacred animals of the clans,' survivals
from an age ' when the religion of Egypt was totem-
ism.' ' In Egypt the gods themselves are totem-deities,
i.e. personifications or individual representations of
the sacred character and attributes which in the
purely totem stage of religion were ascribed without
distinction to all animals of the holy kind.' So
says Dr. Eobertson Smith. He and Mr. Sayce are
'scholars,' not mere unscholarly anthropologists.^

^ Religion of the Semites, pp. 208, 209.

vi] TOTEMISM "]"]

An Objection

Lastly (ii. 403), when totems infected ' even those
who ought to have been proof against this infantile
complaint ' (which is not even a ' disease of language '
of a respectable type), then ' the objection that a
totem meant originally a clan-mark was treated as
scholastic pedantry.' Alas, I fear with justice ! For
if I call Mr. Arthur Balfour a Tory will Mr. Max
Mliller refute my opinion by urging that ' a Tory
meant originally an Irish rapparee,' or whatever the
word did originally mean ?

Mr. Max Mliller decides that ' we never find a
religion consisting exclusively of a belief in fetishes,
or totems, or ancestral spirits.' Here, at last, we
are in absolute agreement. So much for totems and
sign-boards. Onl}^ a weak fanatic will find a totem in
every animal connected with gods, sacred names, and
religious symbols. But totemism is a fact, whether
' totem ' originally meant a clan-mark or sign-board
in America or not. And, like Mr. Sayce, Mr. Frazer,
Mr. Rhys, Dr. Eobertson Smith, I believe that
totemism has left marks in civilised myth, ritual,
and religion, and that these survivals, not a ' disease
of language,' explain certain odd elements in the old
civilisations.

A Weak Brother

Our author's habit of omitting references to his
opponents has here caused me infinite inconveni-
ence. He speaks of some eccentric person who
has averred that a ' fetish ' is a ' totem,' inhabited by
' an ancestral spirit.' To myself it seems that you
might as well say ' Abracadabra is gas and gaiters,'

78 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

As no reference was offered, I invented ' a wild
surmise ' that Mr. Max Miiller had conceivably mis-
apprehended Mr. Frazer's theory of the origin of
totems. Had our author only treated himself fairly,
he would have referred to his own Anthropological
Religion (pp. 126 and 407), where the name of the
eccentric definer is given as that of Herr Lippert.^
Then came into my mind the words of Professor
Tiele, 'Beware of weak brethren' — such as Herr
Lippert seems, as far as this definition is concerned,
to be.

Nobody knows the origin of totemism. We find
no race on its way to becoming totemistic, though
we find several in the way of ceasing to be so. They
are abandoning female kinship for paternity ; their
rules of marriage and taboo are breaking down ;
perhaps various totem kindreds of different crests
and names are blending into one local tribe, under
the name, perhaps, of the most prosperous totem-
kin. But we see no race on its way to becoming
totemistic, so we have no historical evidence as to
the origin of the institution. Mr. McLennan offered
no conjecture, Professor Eobertson Smith offered
none, nor have I displayed the spirit of scientific
exactitude by a guess in the dark. To gratify Mr.
Max Midler by defining totemism as Mr. McLennan
first used the term is all that I dare do. Here one
may remark that if Mr. Max Miiller really wants
' an accurate definition ' of totemism, the works of
McLennan, Frazer, Eobertson Smith, and myself
are accessible, and contain our definitions. He does
not produce these definitions, and criticise them ;
he produces Dr. Lippert's and criticises that. An

' Die JReligionen, p. 12.

vi] TOTEMISM 79

argument should be met in its strongest and most
authoritative form. ' Define what you mean by a
totem,' says Professor Max Miiller in his Gifford
Lectures of 1891 (p. 123). He had to look no
further for a definition, an authoritative definition,
than to ' totem ' in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, or
to McLennan. Yet his large and intelligent Glasgow
audience, and his readers, may very well be under
the impression that a definition of ' totem ' is ' still
to seek,' like Prince Charlie's religion. Controversy
simply cannot be profitably conducted on these
terms.

' The best representatives of anthropology are
now engaged not so much in comparing as in dis-
criminating.' ^ Why not refer, then, to the results of
their discriminating efforts ? ' To treat all animal
worship as due to totemism is a mistake.' Do we
make it ?

Mr. Prazer and Myself

There is, or was, a difference of opinion between
Mr. Frazer and myself as to the causes of the appear-
ance of certain sacred animals in Grreek relision.
My notions were published in Myth, Ritual, and
Religion (1887), Mr. Frazer's in The Golden Bough
(1890). Necessarily I was unaware in 1887 of Mr.
Frazer's still unpublished theory. Now that I have
read it, he seems to me to have the better loeic on
his side ; and if I do not as yet wholly agree with
him, it is because I am not yet certain that both of
our theories may not have their proper place in
Greek mytholog}^

1 Anth. Bel. p. 122.

So MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ti

Greek Totemism

In C. and M. (p. 106) I describe the social aspects
of totemism. I ask if there are traces of it in Greece.
Suppose, for argument's sake, that in pre-historic
Greece the mouse had been a totem, as it is among
the Oraons of Bengal.^ In that case (1) places
might be named from a mouse tribe ; (2) mice might
be held sacred j^er se; (3) the mouse name might be
given locally to a god who superseded the mouse in
pride of place ; (4) images of the mouse might be
associated with that of the god, (5) and used as a
local badge or mark; (6) m^^ths might be invented
to explain the forgotten cause of this prominence of
the mouse. If all these notes occur, they would raise
a presumption in favour of totemism in the past of
Greece. I then give evidence in detail, proving that
all these six facts do occur among Greeks of the
Troads and sporadically elsewhere. I add that,
granting for the sake of argument that these traces
may point to totemism in the remote past, the
mouse, though originally a totem, ' need not have
been an Aryan totem' (p. 116).

I offer a list of other animals closely connected
with Apollo, giving him a beast's name (wolf, ram,
dolphin), and associated with him in myth and art.
In M. R. R. I apply similar arguments in the case of
Artemis and the Bear, of Dionysus and the Bull,
Demeter and the Pig, and so forth. Moreover, I
account for the myths of descent of Greek human
families from gods disguised as dogs, ants, serpents,
bulls, and swans, on the li3^pothesis that kindreds
who originally, in totemistic fashion, traced to beasts

' Dalton.

Ti] TOTEMISM 8 r

sans phrase, later explained their own myth to them-
selves by sayinpf that the paternal beast was only a
god in diso'nise and en bonne fuvtune.

This hypothesis at least ' colligates the facts,' and
brings them into intelligible relationship with widely-
diffused savage institutions and myths.

The Greek Mouse-totem ?

My theory connecting Apollo Smintheus and the
place-names derived from mice with a possible pre-
historic mouse-totem gave me, I confess, considerable
satisfaction. But in Mr. Frazer's Golden Bough
(ii. 129-132) is published a group of cases in which
mice and other vermin are worshipped for prudential
reasons — to get them to go away. In the Classical
Eevieiv (vol. vi. 1892) Mr. Ward Fowler quotes
Aristotle and ^Elian on plagues of mice, like the
recent invasion of voles on the Border sheep-farms.
He adopts the theory that the sacred mice were
adored by way of propitiating them. Thus Apollo
may be connected with mice, not as a god who
superseded a mouse-totem, but as an expeller of
mice, like the worm-killing Heracles, and the Locust-
Heracles, and the Locust-Apollo.^ The locust is still
painted red, salaamed to, and set free in India,,
by way of propitiating his companions.- Thus the
Mouse-Apollo (Smintheus) would be merely a god
noted for his usefulness in getting rid of mice, and
any worship given to mice (feeding them, placing
their images on altars, their stamp on coins, naming
places after them, and so on) would be mere acts of
propitiation.

^ Strabo, xiii. 613. Pausanias, i. 24, 8.

- Crooke, Introduction to Popular BeUgion of North India, p. 380.

82 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

There would be no mouse-totem in the back-
ground. I do not feel quite convinced — the mouse
beimr a totem, and a sacred or tabooed animal, in
India and Egypt. ^ But I am content to remain in a
balance of opinion. That the Mouse is the Night
(Gubernatis), or the Lightning (Grohmann), I am dis-
inclined to believe. Philologists are ver}^ apt to jump
at contending meteorological explanations of mice
and such small deer without real necessity, and an
anthropologist is very apt to jump at an equally
unnecessary and perhaps equally undemonstrated
totem.

Philological Theory

Philological mythologists prefer to believe that
the forgotten meaning of words produced the results ;
that the wolf-born Apollo (AvKr)yeviij<;) originally
meant ' Light-born Apollo,' ^ and that the wolf came
in from a confusion between KvKr), ' Light,' and
\vKo^, a wolf. I make no doul)t that philologists can
explain Sminthian Apollo, the Dog-Apollo, and all the
rest in the same way, and account for all the other
peculiarities of place-names, myths, works of art,
local badges, and so forth. We must then, I suppose,
infer that these six traits of the mouse, already
enumerated, tally with the traces which actual
totemism would or might leave surviving behind it,
or which propitiation of mice might leave behind it,
by a chance coincidence, determined by forgotten
meanings of words. The Greek analogy to totemistic
facts would be explained, (1) either by asking for a
definition of totemism, and not listening when it is

' C. and M. p. 115. '^ Contributions, ii. G87.

vi] TOTEMISM 83

given ; or (2) by maintaining that savage totemism
is also a result of a world-wide malady of language,
which, in a hundred tongues, produced the same
confusions of thought, and consequently the same
practices and institutions. Nor do I for one moment
doubt that the ingenuity of philologists could prove
the name of ever}^ beast and plant, in every language
under heaven, to be a name for the ' inevitable
dawn ' (Max Miiller), or for the inevitable thunder,
or storm, or lightning (Kuhn-Schwartz). But as
names appear to yield storm, lightning, night, or
dawn with equal ease and certainty, according as
the scholar prefers dawn or storm, 1 confess that this
demonstration would leave me sceptical. It lacks
scientific exactitude.

Mr. Frazer on Animals in Greek Religion

In The Golden Boi((jh (ii. 37) Mr. Frazer, whose
superior knowledge and acuteness I am pleased
to confess, has a theory different from that which
I (following McLennan) propounded before The
Golden Bough appeared. Greece had a bull-shaped
Dionysus.^ ' There is left no room to doubt that
in rendincr and devourino- a live bull at his festival,
his worshippers believed that they were killing the
god, eating his flesh, and drinking his blood.' - Mr.
Frazer concludes that there are two possible explan-
ations of Diom^s us in his bull aspect. (I) This was
an expression of his character as a deity of vegetation,
' especially as the bull is a common embodiment of

^ Evidence in G. B. i. ;325, :)2(3.

- Compare Liebrecht, ' The Eaten God,' in Zur Volkskunde,
p. 43G.

G 2

84 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

the corn-spirit in Northern Europe.' ^ (2) The other
possible explanation ' appears to be the view taken
by Mr. Lang, who suggests that the bull-formed
Dionysus " had either been developed out of, or had
succeeded to, the worship of a bull-totem." ' ^

Now, anthropologists are generally agreed, I think,
that occasional sacrifices of and communion in the
flesh of the totem or other sacred animals do occur
amoncf totemists.'^ But Mr. Frazer and I both
admit, and indeed are eager to state publicly, that
the evidence for sacrifice of the totem, and com-
munion in eating him, is very scanty. The fact is
rather inferred from rites among peoples just emerg-
ing from totemism (see the case of the Californian
buzzard, in Bancroft) than derived from actual
observation. On this head too much has been taken
for granted by anthropologists. But I learn that
direct evidence has been obtained, and is on the
point of publication. The facts I may not anticipate
here, but the evidence will be properly sifted, and
bias of theory discounted.

To return to my theory of the development of
Dionysus into a totem, or of his inheritance of the
rites of a totem, Mr. Frazer says, ' Of course this is
possible, but it is not yet certain that Aryans ever
had totemism.' ^ Now, in writing of the mouse, I
had taken care to observe that, in origin, the mouse
as a totem need not have been Aryan, but adopted.
People who think that the Aryans did not pass
through a stage of totemism, female kin, and so forth,
can always fall back (to account for apparent sur-

1 Cf. G. B. ii. 17, for evidence.

2 M. E. E. ii. 232. ' G. B. ii. 90 113.
' In Encyclop. Brit, he thinks it ' very probable.'

Yi] TOTEMTSM 85

vivals of such things among Aryans) on ' Pre-
Aryan conquered peoples,' such as the Picts. Aryans
may be enticed by these bad races and become
Pictis i'psis Pictiores.

Aryan Totems (?)

Generally speaking (and how delightfully char-
acteristic of us all is this !), I see totems in Greek
sacred beasts, where Mr. Frazer sees the corn-spirit
embodied in a beast, and where Mr. Max Mliller
sees (in the case of Indra, called the bull) ' words
meaning simply male, manly, strong,' an ' animal
simile.' ^ Here, of course, Mr. Max Midler is wholly
in the right, when a Vedic poet calls Indra ' strong
bull,' or the like. Such poetic epithets do not afford
the shadow of a presumption for Vedic totemism,
€ven as a survival. Mr. Frazer agrees with me and
Mr. Max Midler in this certainty. I myself say, ' If
in the shape of Indra there be traces of fur and
feather, they are not very numerous nor very distinct,
but we give them for what they may l^e worth.' I
then give them.^ To prove that I do not force the
evidence, I take the Vedic text.'^ ' His mother, a
cow, bore Indra, an unlicked calf.' I then give
Sayana's explanation. Indra entered into the body
of Dakshina, and was reborn of her. She also bore
a cow. But this legend, I say, ' has rather the air
of being an invention, apres coup, to account for the
Vedic text of calf Indra, born from a cow, than of
being a genuine ancient myth.' The Vedic myth of
Indra's amours in shape of a ram, I say ' will doubt-

1 i. 200. ■' M. B. B. ii. 142, 148-149.

3 B. V. iv. 18, 10.

86 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

less be explained away as metaphorical.' Nay, I will
go further. It is perfectly conceivable to me that in
certain cases a poetic epithet applied by a poet to a
god (say bull, ram, or snake) mu/ht be misconceived,
and might give rise to the worship of a god as a bull,
or snake, or ram. Further, if civihsed ideas perished,
and if a race retained a bull-god, born of their
degradation and confusion of mind, they might eat
him in a ritual sacrifice. But that all totemistic
races are totemistic, because they all first meta-
phorically applied animal names to gods, and then
forgot what they had meant, and worshipped these
animals, saiis phrase, appears to me to be, if not
incredible, still greatly in want of evidence.

Mr. Frazer and I

It is plain that where a people claim no connec-
tion by descent and blood from a sacred animal, are
neither of his name nor kin, the essential feature of
totemism is absent. I do not see that eaters of the
bull Dionysus or cultivators of the pig Demeter ^
made any claim to kindred with either god. Their
towns were not allied in name with pig or bull. If
traces of such a belief existed, they have been
sloughed off. Thus Mr. Frazer's explanation of Greek
pigs and bulls and all their odd rites, as connected
with the beast in which the corn-spirit is incarnate,
holds its ground better than my totemistic sugges-
tion. But I am not sure that the corn-spirit accounts
for the Sminthian mouse in all his aspects, nor for
the Arcadian and Attic bear-rites and myths of
Artemis. Mouse and bear do appear in Mr. Frazer's

' G. B. ii. 44-49.

vi] TOTEMISM 87

catalogue of forms of the corn-spirits, taken from
Mannhardt.^ But the Arcadians, as we shall see,
claimed descent from a bear, and the mouse place-
names and badges of the Troad yield a hint of the
same idea. The many Greek family claims to
descent from gods as dogs, bulls, ants, serpents,
and so on, may spring from gratitude to the corn-
spirit. Does Mr. Frazer think so ? Nobody knows
so well as he that similar claims of descent from docjs
and snakes are made by many savage kindreds who
have no agriculture, no corn, and, of course, no corn-
spirits. These remarks, I trust, are not undiscriminat-
ing, and naturally I yield the bull Dionysus and the pig
Demeter to the corn-siDirit, vice totem, superseded.
But I do hanker after the Arcadian bear as, at least,
a possible survival of totemism. The Scottish school
inspector removed a picture of Behemoth, as a fabu-
lous animal, from the wall of a school room. But,
not being sure of the natural history of the unicorn,
' he just let him bide, and gave the puir beast the
benefit o' the doubt.'

Will Mr. Frazer give the Arcadian bear ' the
benefit of the doubt ' ?

I am not at all bigoted in the opinion that the
Greeks may have once been totemists. The strongest
presumption in favour of the hypothesis is the many
claims of descent from a god disguised as a beast.
But the institution, if ever it did exist among the
ancestors of the Greeks, had died out verv lono- before
Homer. We cannot expect to find traces of the
prohibition to marry a woman of the same totem.
In Eome we do find traces of exogamy, as among
totemists. ' Formerly they did not marry women

1 (?. 5. ii. 33.

88 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

connected with them by blood.' ^ But we do not
find, and would not expect to find, that the ' blood '
was indicated by the common totem.

Mr. Frazer on Origin of Totenaism

Mr. Frazer has introduced the term ' sex-totems,'
in application to Australia. This is connected with
his theory of the Origin of Totemism. I cannot quite
approve of the term sex-totems.

If in Australia each sex has a protecting animal
— the men a bat, the women an owl — if the slaying
of a bat by a woman menaces the death of a man,
if the slaying of an owl by a woman may cause the
decease of a man, all that is very unlike totemism in
other countries. Therefore, I ask Mr. Frazer whether,
in the interests of definite terminolog}^, he had not
better give some other name than ' totem ' to his
Australian sex protecting animals ? He might take
for a local fact, a local name, and say ' Sex-kobong.'

Once more, for even we anthropologists have our
bickerings, I would ' hesitate dislike ' of this passage
in Mr. Frazer's work : -

' When a savage names liimself after an animal,
calls it his brother, and refuses to kill it, the animal
is said to be his totem.' Distinguo ! A savage does
not name himself after his totem, any more than Mr.
Frazer named liimself by his clan- name, originally
Norman. It was not as when Miss Betty Amory
named herself ' Blanche,' by her own will and fantasy.
A savage inherits his totem name, usually through
the mother's side. The special animal which protects

' Vlniarch,Quccst.Bom.\i. McLennan, The Patriarchal Tlicory,
p. 207, note 2.
" G. B. ii. 837.

VI] TOTEMISM 89

an individual savage (Zapotec, toiia ; Guatemalan,
nagual ; North America, Manitou, ' medicine ') is not
that savage's totem J The nagual, tona, or manitou
is selected for each particular savage, at birth or
puberty, in various ways : in America, North and
Central, by a dream in a fast, or after a dream.
(' Post-hypnotic suggestion.') But a savage is born
to his kin-totem. A man is born a wolf of the
Delawares, his totem is the wolf, he cannot help him-
self. But after, or in, his medicine fast and sleep,
he may choose a dormouse or a squirrel for his
manitou {tona, nagual) or private protecting animal.
These are quite separate from totems, as Mr. Max
Mliller also points out.

Of totems, I, for one, must always write in the
sense of Mr. McLennan, who introduced totemism
to science. Thus, to speak of ' sex-totems,' or to call
the protecting animal of each individual a ' totem,'
is, I fear, to bring in confusion, and to justify Mr.
Max Mllller's hard opinion that ' totemism ' is ill-
defined. For myself, I use the term in the strict
sense which I have given, and in no other.

Mr. McLennan did not profess, as we saw, to
know the origin of totems. He once made a guess
in conversation with me, but he abandoned it. Pro-
fessor Eobertson Smith did not know the origin of
totems. ' The origin of totems is as much a problem
as the origin of local sjods.' '-^ Mr. Max MilUer knows
the origin : sign-boards are the origin, or one origin.
But what was the origin of sign-boards ? ' We
carry the pictures of saints on our banners because
we worship them ; we don't worship them because

^ See G. B. ii. 332-334. - EeUgion of the Semites, p. 118.

90 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vi

we carry them as banners,' says De Brosses, an acute
man. Did the Indians worship totems because they
carved them on sign-boards (if they all did so), or
did they carve them on sign-boards because they
worshipped them ?

Mr. Frazer's Theory

The Australian respects his ' sex-totem ' because
the life of his sex is bound up in its life. He speaks
of it as his brother, and calls himself (as distinguished
by his sex) by its name. As a man he is a bat, as
a woman his wife is an owl. As a member of a given
human kin he maj be a kangaroo, perhaps his wife
may be an emu. But Mr. Frazer derives totemism,all
the world over, from the same origin as he assigns to
' sex-totems.' In these the life of each sex is bound
up, therefore they are by each sex revered. There-
fore totemism must have the same origin, substituting
' kin ' or ' tribe ' for sex. He gives examples from
Australia, in which killing a man's totem killed the
man.^

I would respectfully demur or suggest delay.
Can we exj)lain an American institution, a fairly
world-wide institution, totemism, by the local
peculiarities of belief in isolated Australia ? If, in
America, to kill a wolf was to kill Uncas or Chin-
gachgook, I would incline to agree with Mr. Frazer.
But no such evidence is adduced. Nor does it help
Mr. Frazer to plead that the killing of an American's
nagual or of a Zulu's IJilozi kills that Zulu or
American. For a mujual, as I have shown, is one
thing and a totem is another ; nor am I aware that

' G. B. ii. 337, 338.

vi] TOTEMISxM 91

Zulus are totemists. The argument of Mr. Frazer is
based on analogy and on a special instance. That
instance of the Australians is so archaic that it may
show totemism in an early form. Mr. Frazer 's may
be a correct hypothesis, but it needs corroboration.
However, Mr. Frazer concludes : ' The totem, if I am
right, is simply the receptacle in which a man keeps
his life.' Yet he never shows that a Choctaw does
keep his life in his totem. Perhaps the Choctaw is
afraid to let out so vital a secret. The less reticent
Australian blurts it forth. Suppose the hypothesis
correct. Men and women keep their lives in their
naguals, private sacred beasts. But why, on this
score, should a man be afraid to make love to a
woman of the same 7ia</ual? Have Eed Indian icomen
any naguals ? I never heard of them.

Since writing this I have read Miss Kingsley's
Travels in West Africa. There the ' bush-souls '
which she mentions (p. 459) bear analogies to totems,
being inherited sacred animals, connected with the
life of members of families. The evidence, though
vaguely stated, favours Mr. Frazer's hypothesis, to
which Miss Kingsley makes no allusion.

92 MODERN MYTHOLOGY

YIT

THE VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Anthropological Evidence

In all that we say of totemism, as, later, of fetishism,
we rely on an enormous mass of evidence from geo-
graphers, historians, travellers, settlers, missionaries,
explorers, traders, Civil Servants, and European
officers of native police in Australia and Burmah.
Our witnesses are of all ages, from Herodotus to our
day, of many nations, of many creeds, of different
theoretical opinions. This evidence, so world-wide,
so diversified in source, so old, and so new, Mr. Max
Miiller impugns. But, before meeting his case, let
us clear up a personal question.

' Positions one never held '

' It is not pleasant [writes our author] to have
to defend positions which one never held, nor wishes
to hold, and I am therefore all the more grateful to
those who have pointed out the audacious misrepre-
sentations of my real opinion in comparative mytho-
logy, and have rebuked the flippant tone of some of
my eager critics ' [i. 26, 27].

I must here confess to the belief that no gentle-
man or honest man ever consciously misrepresents
the ideas of an opponent. If it is not too flippant an
illustration, I would say that no bowler ever throws

vn] VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 93

consciously and wilfully ; his action, however, may
unconsciously develop into a throw. There would
be no pleasure in argument, cricket, or any other
sport if we knowingly cheated. Thus it is always
unconsciously .that adversaries pervert, garble, and
misrepresent each other's opinions ; unconsciously,,
not ' audaciously.' If people would start from the
major premise that misrepresentations, if such exist,,
are unconscious errors, much trouble would be
spared.

Positions which I never held

Thus Mr. Max Mliller never dreamed of ' auda-
ciously misi'epresenting ' me when, in four lines, he
made two statements about my opinions and my
materials which are at the opposite pole from the
accurate (i. 12) : ' When I speak of the Vedic Rishis
as primitive, I do not mean what Mr. A. Lang means
when he calls his savages primitive.' But I have
stated again and again that I clont call my savages
' primitive.' Thus ' contemporary savages may be
degraded, they certainly are not primitive.' ^ ' One
thing about the past of [contemporary] savages we
do know : it must have been a long past.' - ' We do
not wish to call savages primitive.' "' All this was
written in reply to the very proper caution of
Dr. Fairbairn that ' savages are not primitive.' Of
course they are not ; that is of the essence of my
theory. I regret the use of the word ' primitive '
even in Primitive CuUure. Savages, as a rule, are
earlier, more backward tha.n civilised races, as, of
course, Mr. Max Midler admits, where language is

1 Custom and Myth, p. 235. - M. B. B. ii. 327.

^ Op. cit. ii. 329.

94 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vii

concerned.^ Now, after devoting several pao^es to
showing in detail how very far from primitive even
the Australian tribes are, might I (if I were ill-
natured) not say that Mr. Max Mliller ' audaciously
misrepresents ' me when he avers that I ' call m}''
savages primitive ' ? But he never dreamed of mis-
representing me ; he only happened not to understand
my position. However, as he complains in his own
case, ' it is not pleasant to have to defend positions
which one never held ' (i. 26), and, indeed, I shall
defend no such position.

My adversary next says that my ' savages are of
the nineteenth century.' It is of the essence of my
theory that my savages are of many different cen-
turies. Those described by Herodotus, Strabo, Dio
Cassius, Christoval de Moluna, Sahagun, Cieza de
Leon, Brebeuf, Garcilasso de la Vega, Lafitau,
Nicholas Damascenus, Leo Africanus, and a hundred
others, are not of the nineteenth century. This fact
is essential, because the evidence of old writers, from
Herodotus to Egede, corroborates the evidence of
travellers, Indian Civil Servants, and missionaries
of to-day, by what Dr. Tylor, when defending our
materials, calls ' the test of recurrence.' Professor
Millar used the same argument in his Origin of
Rank, in the last century. Thus Mr. Max Mliller
unconsciously misrepresents me (and my savages)
when he says that my ' savages are of the nine-
teenth century.' The fact is the reverse. They are
of many centuries. These two unconscious misrepre-
sentations occur in four consecutive lines.

^ Lectures on Science of Language, Second Series, p. 41.

Til] VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 95

Anthropological Evidence

In connection with this topic (the nature of
anthropological evidence), Mr. Max Miiller (i.
205-207) repeats what he has often said before.
Thus he cites Dr. Codrington's remarks, most valu-
able remarks, on the difficulty of reporting correctly
about the ideas and ways of savages. I had cited the
same judicious writer to the same effect,^ and had
compiled a number of instances in which the errors
of travellers were exposed, and their habitual falla-
cies were detected. Fifteen closely printed pages
were devoted by me to a criterion of evidence,
and a reply to Mr. Max Muller's oft-repeated
objections.

' When [I said] we lind Dr. Codrington taking
the same precautions in Melanesia as Mr. Sproat took
amono- the Ahts, and when his account of Melanesian
myths reads like a close copy of Mr. Sproat's account
of Aht legends, and when both are corroborated [as
to the existence of analogous savage myths] by the
collections of Bleek, and Hahn, and Gill, and Castren,
and Rink, in far different corners of the world ; while
the modern testimony of these scholarly men is in
harmony with that of the old Jesuit missionaries,
and of untaught adventurers who have lived for
many years with savages, surely it will be admitted
that the difficulty of ascertaining savage opinion
has been, to a great extent, overcome.'

I also cited at length Dr. Tylors masterly argu-
ment to the same effect, an argument offered by him
to ' a great historian,' apparently.

• M. B. E. ii. 336.

96 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vir

Mr. Max Mliller's Method of Controversy

Now no member of the reading public, perusing
Mr. Max Mliller on anthropological evidence
(i. 24-26, 205-207), could guess that his cautions
about evidence are not absolutely new to us.
He could not guess that Dr. Tylor replied to them
' before they were made ' b}^ our present critic (I
think), and that I did the same with great elabora-
tion. Our defence of our evidence is not noticed
by Mr. Max Mliller, He merely repeats what he
has often said before on the subject, exactly as if
anthropologists were ignorant of it, and had not
carefully studied, assimilated, profited by it, and
answered it. Our critic and monitor might have
said, ' I have examined your test of recurrences,
and what else you have to urge, and, for such and
such reasons, I must reject it.' Then we could
reconsider our position in this new light. But
Mr, Max Mliller does not oblige us in this way.

Mr. Max Mliller on our Evidence

In an earlier work. The Gifford Lectures for 1891,^
our author had devoted more space to a criticism
of our evidence. To this, then, we turn (pp. 169-
180, 413-436). Passing Mr. Max Mliller's own
difficulties in understanding a Mohawk (which the
Mohawk no doubt also felt in understanding Mr, Max
Mliller), we reach (p. 172) the fables about godless
savages. These, it is admitted, are exploded among
scholars in anthropology. So we do, at least,
examine evidence. Mr. Max Mliller now fixes on a

' Anihropological licligion.

vii] VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDEXCE 97

flagrant case, some fables about the godless Min-
copies of the Andaman Islands. But he relies on the
evidence of Mr. Man. So do I, as far as it seems
beyond doubt. ^ Mr. Man is ' a careful observer, a
student of language, and perfectly trustworthy.'
These are the reasons for which I trust him. But
when Mr. Man . says that the Mincopies have a god,
Puluga, who inhabits ' a stone house in the sky,' I
remark, ' Here the idea of the stone house is neces-
sarily borrowed from our stone houses at Port Blair.'-
When Mr. Man talks of Puluga's only-begotten son,
' a sort of archangel,' medium between Puluga
and the angels, I 'hesitate a doubt.' Did not this idea
reach the Mincopie mind from the same quarter as
the stone house, especially as Puluga's wife is ' a
green shrimp or an eel ' ? At all events, it is right to
bear in mind that, as the stone house of the Mincopie
heaven is almost undeniably of European origin, th2
only-begotten mediating son of Puluga and the gresn
shrimp 7nay bear traces of Christian teaching.
Caution is indicated.

Does Mr. Max Mliller, so strict about evidence,
boggle at the stone house, the only son, the shrimp ?
Not he ; he never hints at the shrimp ! Does he point
out that one anthropologist has asked for caution in
weighing what the Mincopies told Mr. Man ? Very
far from that, he complains that ' the old story is
repeated again and again ' about the godless Anda-
mans.^ The intelligent Glasc^ow audience could
hardly guess that anthropologists were watchful,
and knew pretty well what to believe about the
Mincopies. Perhaps in Glasgow they do not read us
anthropologists much.

' M. B. B. i. 171-173. - Ihid. i. 172. -^ Antli. Bel p. 180.

98 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vii

On p. 413 our author returns to the charge. He
observes (as I have also observed) the often contra-
dictory nature of our evidence. Here I may offer an
anecdote. The most celebrated of living English
philosophers heard that I was at one time writing a
book on the ' ghostly ' in history, anthropology, and
society, old or new, savage or civilised. He kindly
dictated a letter to me asking how I could give time
and pains to any such marvels. For, he argued, the
most unveracious fables were occasionally told about
himself in newspapers and social gossip. If evidence
cannot be trusted about a living and distinguished
British subject, how can it be accepted about halluci-
nations ?

I replied, with respect, that on this principle
nothing could be investigated at all. History, justice,
trade, everything would be impossible. We must
weigh and criticise evidence. As my friendly adviser
had written much on savage customs and creeds, he
best knew that conflicting testimony, even on his
own chosen theme, is not peculiar to ghost stories.
In a world of conflicting testimony we live by criti-
cising it. Thus, when Mr. Max Mliller says that I
caU my savages ' primitive,' and when I, on the other
hand, quote passages in which I explicitly decline to
do so, the evidence as to my views is contradictory.
Yet the truth can be discovered by careful research.

The application is obvious. We must not de-
spair of truth ! As our monitor says, ' we ought to
discard all evidence that does not come to us either
from a man who was able himself to converse with
native races, or who was at least an eye-witness of
what he relates.' Precisely, that is our method. I,
for one, do not take even a ghost story at second

Til] VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 99

hand, much less anything so starthng as a savage
rite. And we discount and allow for every bias
and prejudice of our witnesses. I have made a list
of these idola in M. R. R. ii. 334-344.

Mr. Max Mliller now gives a list of inconsis-
tencies in descriptions of Australian Blacks. They
are not Blacks, they have a dash of copper colour !
Well, I never said that thej^ had ' the sooty tinge
of the African negro.' Did anybody ?

Mr. Eidley thinks that all natives are called
* Murri.' Mr. Curr says ' No.' Important. We must
reserve our judgment.

Missionaries say the Blacks are ' devoid of moral
ideas.' What missionaries ? What anthropologist
believes such nonsense ? There are differences of
opinion about landed property, communal or pri-
vate. The difference ra<?es amono- historians of civil-
ised races. So, also, as to portable property. Mr.
Curr (Mr. Max Mllller's witness) agrees here with
those whose works I chiefly rely on.

' Mr. McLennan has built a whole social theory
on the statement ' (a single statement) ' made by Sir
George Grey, and contradicted by Mr. Curr.' Mr.
McLennan would be, I think, rather surprised at
this remark ; but what would he do ? Why, he
would re-examine the whole question, decide by the
balance of evidence, and reject, modify, or retain his
theory accordingly.

All sciences have to act in this way ; there-
fore almost all scientific theories are fluctuating.
Nothing here is peculiar to anthropology. A single
word, or two or three, will prove or disprove a
theory of phonetic laws. Even phonetics are dis-
putable ground.

H 2

lOO MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vii

In defence of my late friend Mr. McLennan, I
must point out that if he built a whole social theory
on a single statement of Sir George Grey's, and if
Mr. Curr denies the truth of the statement, Mr.
Frazer has produced six or seven witnesses to the
truth of that very statement in other parts of the
world than Australia.^ To this circumstance we
may return.

Mr. Max Miiller next produces Mr. Curr's opinions
about the belief in a god and morality among
Australians. 'Here he really contradicts himself.'
The disputable evidence about Australian marriage
laws is next shown to be disputable. That is pre-
cisely why Dr. Tylor is applying to it his unrivalled
dilisrence in accurate examination. We await his
results. Finally, the contradictory evidence as to
Tasmanian religion is exposed. We have no Cod-
rington or Bleek for Tasmania. The Tasmanians are
extinct, and Science should leave the evidence as to
their religion out of her accounts. We cannot cross-
examine defunct Tasmanians.

From all this it follows that anthropologists must
sift and winnow their evidence, like men employed
in every other branch of science. And who denies
it? What anthropologist of mark accepts as gospel
any casual traveller's tale ?

The Test of Recurrences
Even for travellers' tales we have a use, we can
apply to them Dr. Tylor's ' Test of Recurrences.'

' If two independent visitors to different coun-
tries, say a mediaeval Mahommedan in Tartary and
a modern Englishman in Dahomey, or a Jesuit

^ ' Totemism,' Encycloi). Brit.

Til] VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOSICAL EVIDE^■CE lOI

missionary in Brazil and a Wesley an in the Fiji
Islands, agree in describing some analogous art,
or rite, or myth among the people they have
visited, it becomes difficult or impossible to set
down such correspondence to accident or wilful
fraud. A story by a bushranger in Australia
may perhaps be objected to as a mistake or an
invention, but did a Methodist minister in Guinea
conspire with him to cheat the public by telling the
same story there ? '

The whole passage should be read : it was antici-
pated by Professor Millar in his Origin of Bank, and
has been restated by myself.^ Thus I wrote (in
1887) 'it is to be regretted that Mr. Max Miiller
entirely omits to mention . . . the corroboration
which is derived from the undesigned coincidence
of independent testimony.'

In 1891-1892 he still entirely omits to mention,
to his Glasgow audience, the strength of his oppo-
nents' case. He would serve us better if he would
criticise the test of recurrences, and show us its
weak points.

Bias of Theory

Yes, our critic may reply, ' but Mr. Curr thinks
that there is a strong tendency in observers abroad,
if they have become acquainted with a new and
startling theory that has become popular at home,
to see confirmations of it everywhere.' So I had
explicitly stated in commenting on Dr. Tylor's test
of recurrences.^ ' Travellers and missionaries have
begun to read anthropological books, and their

^ M. R. R. ii. 333. - Ihid. ii. 335.

102 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [vn

evidence is, therefore, much more likely to be biassed
now by anthropological theories than it was of old.'
So Mr. McLennan, in the very earliest of all writings
on totemism, said : ' As the totem has not till now
got itself mixed up with speculations the observers
have been unbiassed.' Mr. McLennan finally de-
clined to admit any evidence as to the savage
marriage laws collected after his own theory, and
other theories born from it, had begun to bias ob-
servers of barbaric tribes.

It does not quite seem to me that Mr. Max
Mliller makes his audience acquainted with these
precautions of anthropologists, with their sedulous
sifting of evidence, and watchfulness against the
theoretical bias of observers. Thus he assails the
faible, not the fort of our argument, and may even
seem not to be aware that we have removed the
faible by careful discrimination.

What opinion must his readers, who know not
Mr, McLennan's works, entertain about that acute
and intrepid pioneer, a man of warm temper, I
admit, a man who threw out his daringly original
theory at a heat, using at first such untrustworthy
materials as lay at hand, but a man whom disease
could not daunt, and whom only death prevented
from building a stately edifice on the soil which he
was the first to explore ?

Our author often returns to the weakness of the
evidence of travellers and missionaries.

Concerning Missionaries

Here is an example of a vivacite in our censor.
' With regard to ghosts and spirits among the

vii] VALIDITY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 1 03

Melanesians, our authorities, whether missionaries,
traders, or writers on ethnology, are troubled by no
difficulties ' (i. 207). Yet on this very page Mr.
Max Milller has been citing the ' difficulties ' which
do ' trouble ' a ' missionary,' Dr. Codrington. And,
for my own part, when I want information about
Melanesian beliefs, it is to Dr. Codrington's work
that I go.^ The doctor, himself a missionary, ex
hypothesi ' untroubled by difficulties,' has just been
quoted by Mr. Max Milller, and by myself, as a wit-
ness to the difficulties which trouble himself and us.
What can Mr. Max Milller possibly mean ? Am I
wrong ? Was Dr. Codrington 7iot a missionary ?
At all events, he is the authority on Melanesia, a
' high ' authority (i. 206).

1 M. B. E. i. 96, 127 ; ii. 22, 336.

I04 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [rai

YIII

THE PHILOLOGICAL METHOD IN ANTHBOPOLOGY

Mr. Max Miiller as Ethnologist

Our author is apt to remonstrate with his anthropo-
logical critics, and to assure them that he also has
made studies in ethnology. ' I am not such a
despairer of ethnology as some ethnologists would
have me.' He refers us to the assistance which he
lent in bringing out Dr. Halm's Tsuni-Goam (1881),
Mr. Gill's Myths and Songs from the South Pacific
(1876), and probably other examples could be added.
But my objection is, not that we should be ungrate-
ful to Mr. Max MuUer for these and other valuable
services to anthropology, but that, when he has got
his anthropological material, he treats it in what I
think the wrong way, or approves of its being so
treated.

Here, indeed, is the irreconcilable difference
between two schools of mythological interpretation.
Given Dr. Halm's book, on Hottentot manners and
religion : the anthropologist compares the Hottentot
rites, beliefs, social habits, and general ideas with
those of other races known to him, savage or
civilised. A Hottentot custom, which has a meaning
among Hottentots, may exist where its meaning is
lost, among Greeks or other 'Aryans.' A story of
a Hottentot god, quite a natural sort of tale for a

viii] PHIL0L0C4ICAL METHOD IN ANTHROPOLOGY 1 05

Hottentot to tell, may be told about a god in Greece,
where it is contrary to the Greek spirit. We infer
that the Greeks perhaps inherited it from savage
ancestors, or borrowed it from savages.

Names of Savage Gods

This is the method, and if we can also get a scholar
to analyse the names of Hottentot gods, we are all the
luckier, that is, if his processes and inferences are
logical. May we not decide on the logic of scholars ?
But, just as Mr. Max Miiller points out to us the
dangers attending our evidence, we point out to him
the dangers attending his method. In Dr. Hahn's
book, the doctor analyses the meaning of the name
Tsuni-Goam and other names, discovers their original
sense, and from that sense explains the myths about
Hottentot divine beings.

Here we anthropologists first ask Mr. Max Miiller,
before accepting Dr. Hahn's etymologies, to listen
to other scholars about the perils and difficulties of
the philological analysis of divine names, even in
Aryan languages. I have already quoted his ' de-
fender,' Dr. Tiele. 'The philological method is
inadequate and misleading, when it is a question
of (1) discovering the origin of a myth, or (2) the
physical explanation of the oldest myths, or (3) of
accounting for the rude and obscene element in the
divine legends of civilised races.'

To the two former purposes Dr. Halm applies
the philological method in the case of Tsuni-Goam.
Other scholars agree with Dr. Tiele. Mannhardt,
as we said, held that Mr. Max Miiller's favourite
etymological ' equations,' Sarameya = Hermeias ;
Saranyu - Demeter - Erinnys ; Kentauros = Gandharvas

I06 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [viir

and others, would not stand criticism. ' The
method in its practical working shows a lack of
the historical sense,' said Mannhardt. Curtius — a
scholar, as Mr. Max MllUer declares (i. 32) — says,
'It is especially difficult to conjecture the mean-
ing of proper names, and above all of local and
mythical names.' ^ I do not see that it is easier
when these names are not Greek, but Hottentot, or
Algonquin !

Thus Achilles may as easily mean ' holder of the
people ' as ' holder of stones,' i.e. a Eiver-god ! Or
does 'A-^ suggest aqua, Achelous the Eiver ? Leto,
mother of Apollo, cannot be from XaOelt^, as Mr.
Max MilUer holds (ii. 514, 515), to which Mr. Max
Miiller replies, perhaps not, as far as the phonetic
rules go ' which determine the formation of appella-
tive nouns. It, indeed, would be extraordinary if it
were. . . .' The phonetic rules in Hottentot may also
suggest difficulties to a South African Curtius !

Other scholars agree with Curtius — agree in
thinking that the etymology of mythical names is a
sandy foundation for the science of mytholog3^

' The difficult task of interpreting mythical names
has, so far, produced few certain results,' says Otto
Schrader.-

When Dr. Hahn applies the process in Hottentot,
we urge with a friendly candour these cautions from
scholars on Mr. Max Miiller.

A Hottentot God
In Custom and Myth (p. 207), I examine the logic
by which Dr. Hahn proves Tsuni-Goam to be ' The

* Greek Etijm. Engl, transl. i. 147.

- Spraclivergleiclmng und XJrgcscliichte, p. 431.

viii] PHILOLOGICAL METHOD IN ANTHROPOLOGY 1 07

Eed Dawn.' One of his steps is to say that fei^ means
' sore,' or ' wounded,' and that a wound is red, so he
gets his ' red ' in Eed Dawn. But of tsu in the sense
of ' red ' he gives not one example, while he does give
another word for ' red,' or ' bloody.' This may be
scholarly but it is not evidence, and this is only one
of many perilous steps on ground extremely scahreux,
got over by a series of logical leaps. As to our
quarrel with Mr. Max Miiller about his friend's treat-
ment of ethnological materials, it is this : we do not
believe in the validity of the etymological method
when applied to many old divine names in Greek, still
less in Hottentot.

Cause of our Scepticism

Our scepticism is confirmed by the extraordinary
diversity of opinion among scholars as to what the
right analysis of old divine names is. Mr. Max
Miiller writes (i. 18) : 'I have never been able to
extract from my critics the title of a single book in
which my etymologies and my mythological equa-
tions had been seriously criticised by real scholars.'
We might answer, ' Why tell you what you know
very well?' For (i. 50) you say that while Signor
Canizzaro calls some of your ' equations ' ' irrefu-
tably demonstrated,' ' other scholars declare these
equations are futile and impossible.' Do these other
scholars criticise j^our equations not ' seriously ' ? Or
are you ignorant of the names of their works ?

Another case. Our author says that ' many
objections were raised' to his 'equation' of Athene=
Ahana='Dawn' (ii. 378, 400, &c.). Have the
objections ceased ? Here are a few scholars who do
not, or did not, accept Athene = Ahana : Welcker,

Io8 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [viii

Benfey, Curtius, Preller, Furtwilngler, Scliwartz, and
now Bechtel (i. 378). Mr. Max MuUer thinks that
he is right, but, till scholars agree, what can we do
but wait ?

Phonetic Bickerings

The evidence turns on theories of phonetic laws
as they worked in pre-Homeric Greece. But these
laws, as they apply to common ordinary words, need
not, we are told, be applied so strictly to proper
names, as of gods and heroes. These are a kind of
comets, and their changes cannot be calculated like
the changes of vulgar words, which answer to stars
(i. 298). Mr. Max Miiller ' formerly agreed with Cur-
tius that phonetic rules should be used against proper
names with the same severity as against ordinary
nouns and verbs.' Benfey and Welcker protested, so
does Professor Victor Henry. ' It is not fair to de-
mand from mythography the rigorous observation of
phonetics ' (i. 387). ' This may be called backsliding,'
our author confesses, and it does seem rather a ' go-
as-you-please ' kind of method.

Phonetic Rules

Mr. Max Miiller argues at length (and, to my
ignorance, persuasively) in favour of a genial laxity
in the application of phonetic rules to old proper
names. Do they apply to these as strictly as to
ordinary words ? ' This is a question that has often
been asked . . . but it has never been boldly
answered' (i. 297). Mr. Max Miiller cannot have
forgotten that Curtius answered boldly — in the
negative. ' Without such rigour all attempts at
etymology are impossible. For this very reason

Tin] THILOLOGICAL METPIOD IN ANTHROPOLOGY 109

ethnologists and mythologists should make them-
selves acquainted with the simple principles of
comparative philology.' ^

But it is not for us to settle such disputes of
scholars. Meanwhile their evidence is derived from
their private interpretations of old proper names,
and they differ among themselves as to whether, in
such interpretations, they should or should not be
governed strictly by phonetic laws. Then what
Mr. Max Mliller calls ' the usual bickerings ' begin
among scholars (i. 416). And Mr. Max Mliller
connects Ouranos with Vedic Varuna, while Wacker-
nagel prefers to derive it from ovpov, urine, and this
from ovpeaj=Sk. Varshayami, to rain (ii. 416, 417),
and so it goes on for years with a glorious uncer-
tainty. If Mr. Max Midler's equations are scientific-
ally correct, the scholars who accept them not must
all be unscientific. Or else, this is not science at all.

Basis of a Science

A science in its early stages, while the validity
of its working laws in application to essential cases
is still undetermined, must, of course, expect
'bickerings.' But philological mythologists are
actually trying to base one science, Mythology, on
the still shifting and sandy foundations of another
science. Phonetics. The philologists are quarrellino-
about their ' equations,' and about the application of
their phonetic laws to mythical proper names. On
the basis of this shaking soil, they propose to build
another science, Mythology ! Then, pleased with the
scientific exactitude of their evidence, they object to
the laxity of ours.

1 Gr. Etym. i. 150.

I I O MODERN MYTHOLOGY [tih

Philology in Action — Indra
As an example of the philological method with a
Vedic god, take Indra. I do not think that science
is ever likely to find out the whole origins of any
god. Even if his name mean ' sky,' Dyaus, Zeus,
we must ask what mode of conceiving ' sky ' is
original. Was ' sky ' thought of as a person, and, if
so, as a savage or as a civilised person ; as a god,
sans i^hrase ; as the inanimate visible vault of heaven ;
as a totem, or how ? Indra, like other gods, is apt
to evade our observation, in his origins. Mr. Max
Mliller asks, 'what should we gain if we called
Indra ... a totem ? ' Who does ? If we derive
his name from the same root as ' ind-u,' raindrop,
then 'his starting-point was the rain' (i. 131).
Eoth preferred ' idh,' ' indh,' to kindle ; and later, his
taste and fancy led him to ' ir,' or ' irv,' to have power
over. He is variously regarded as god of 'bright
firmament,' of air, of thunderstorm personified, and
so forth. ^ His name is not detected among other
Aryan gods, and his birth may be after the ' Aryan
Separation' (ii. 752). But surely his name, even
so, might have been carried to the Greeks ? This,
at least, should not astonish Mr. Max Mliller. One
had supposed that Dyaus and Zeus were separately
developed, by peoples of India and Greece, from a
common, pre-separation, Aryan root. One had not
imagined that the Greeks borrowed divine names
from Sanskrit and from India. But this, too, might
happen! (ii. 506). Mr. Max Mliller asks, 'Why
should not a cloud or air goddess of India, whether
called Svara or Urvasi, have supplied the first germs

' M. B. E. ii. 142.

viii] PHILOLOGICAL METHOD IN ANTIEROPOLOGY I I i

from which ^owtti? noTULa 'Hprj descended ? ' Why
not, indeed, if prehistoric Greeks were in touch with
India ? I do not say they were not. Why should
not a Yedic or Sanskrit goddess of India supply
the first germs of a Greek goddess? (ii. p. 506).
Wliy, because ' Greek gods have never been Yedic
gods, but both Greek and Vedic gods have started
from the same germs ' (ii. 429). Our author has
answered his own question, but he seems at inter-
vals to suppose, contrary to his own principles, as I
understand them, that Greek may be ' derived from '
Vedic divine names, or, at least, divine names in
Sanskrit. All this is rather confusing.

Obscuring the Veda
If Indra is called ' buU,' that at first only meant
'strong' (ii. 209). Yet 'some very thoughtful
scholars ' see traces of totemism in Indra ! ^ Mr.
Max MuUer thinks that this theory is ' obscuring the
Yeda by this kind of light from the Dark Continent '
(America, it seems). Indra is said to have been
born from a cow, like the African Heitsi Eibib.^
There are unholy stories about Indra and rams. But
I for one, as I have said already, would never deny
that these may be part of the pleasant unconscious
poetry of the Yedic hymnists. Indra's legend is rich
in savage obscenities ; they may, or may not, be
survivals from savagery. At aU events one sees no
reason why we should not freely compare parallel
savageries, and why this should ' obscure ' the Yeda.
Comparisons are illuminating.

^ ii. 210. Cf, Oklenberg in Deutsche Bundscliau, 1895, p. 205.
2 JS. V. iv. 18, 10.

I 1 2 MODEEN MYTHOLOGY [ix

CRITICISM OF FETISHISM

Miscliief of Comparisons in Comparative Mythology

Not always are comparisons illuminating, it seems.
Our author writes, ' It may be said — in fact, it has
been said — that there can at all events be no harm in
simply placing the myths and customs of savages side
by side with the myths and customs of Hindus and
Greeks.' (This, in fact, is the method of the science
of institutions.)

' But experience shows that this is not so ' (i. 195).
So we must not, should not, simply place the myths
and customs of savages side by side with those of
Hindus and Greeks. It is taboo.

Dr. Oldenberg

Now Dr. Oldenberg, it seems, uses such comparisons
of savage and Aryan faiths. Dr. Oldenberg is
(i. 209) one of several ^very thoughtful scholars' who
do so, who break Mr, Max Mliller's prohibition. Yet
(ii. 220) ' no true scholar would accept any com-
parison ' between savage fables and the folklore of
Homer and the Vedas ' as really authoritative until
fully demonstrated on both sides' Well, it is 'fully
demonstrated,' or ' a very thoughtful scholar ' (like
Dr. Oldenberg) would not accept it. Or it is not
demonstrated, and then Dr. Oldenberg, though ' a
very thoughtful,' is not ' a true scholar.'

ix] CRITICISM OF FETISHISM I I 3

Comparisons, when odious
Once more, Mr. Max Miiller deprecates the
making of comparisons between savage and Yedic
myths (i. 210), and then (i. 220) he deprecates the
acceptance of these very comparisons ' as really
authoritative until fully demonstrated.' Now, how
is the validity of the comparisons to be ' fully demon-
strated ' if we are forbidden to make them at all,
because to do so is to ' obscure ' the Veda ' by light
from the Dark Continent ' ?

A Question of Logic
I am not writing ' quips and cranks ; ' I am deal-
ing quite gravely with the author's processes of
reasoning. ' No true scholar ' does w^hat ' very
thoughtful scholars ' do. No comparisons of savage
and Vedic myths should be made, but yet, ' when
fully demonstrated,' ' true scholars would accept
them ' (i. 209, 220). How can comparisons be de-
monstrated before they are made ? And made they
must not be !

* Scholars '

It would be useful if Mr. Max Miiller were to
define ' scholar,' ' real scholar,' ' true scholar,' ' very
thoughtful scholar.' The latter may err, and have
erred — like General Councils, and like Dr. Oldenberg,
who finds in the Veda ' remnants of the wildest
and rawest essence of religion,' totemism, and the
rest (i. 210). I was wont to think that ' scholar,' as
used by our learned author, meant 'philological
mythologist,' as distinguished from ' not-scholar,'
that is, ' anthropological mythologist.' But now

114 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ix

' very tliouglitful scholars,' even Dr. Oldenberg, Mr.
Rhys, Dr. Eobertson Smith, and so on, use the
anthropological method, so ' scholar ' needs a fresh
definition. The ' not-scholars,' the anthropologists,
have, in fact, converted some very thoughtful
scholars. If we could only catch the true scholar !
But that we cannot do till we fully demonstrate com-
parisons which we may not make, for fear of first
' obscuring the Veda by this kind of light from the
Dark Continent.'

Anthropology and the Mysteries

It is not my affair to defend Dr. Oldenberg, whose
comparisons of Yedic with savage rites I have
never read, I am sorry to say. One is only arguing
that the metliod of making such comparisons' is
legitimate. Thus (i. 232) controversy, it seems,
still rages among scholars as to ' the object of the
Eleusinian Mysteries.' ' Does not the scholar's con-
science warn us against accepting whatever in the
myths and customs of the Zulus seems to suit our
purpose ' — of explaining features in the Eleusinia ?
If Zulu customs, and they alone, contained Eleusinian
parallels, even the anthropologist's conscience would
whisper caution. But this is not the case. North
American, Australian, African, and other tribes
have mysteries very closely and minutely resem-
bling parts of the rites of the Eleusinia, Dionj^sia,
and Thesmophoria. Thus Lobeck, a scholar, de-
scribes the RJiombos used in the Dionysiac mys-
teries, citing Clemens Alexandrinus.^ Thanks to Dr.
Tylor's researches I was able to show (what Lol^eck

' Aglaoj'hamus, i. 700.

ix] CRITICISM OF FETISHISM I I 5

knew not) that the Rhombos (Austrahan turnduii,
' Bull-roarer ' ) is also used in Australian, African,
American, and other savage religious mysteries. Now
should I have refrained from producing this well-
attested matter of fact till I knew Australian,
American, and African languages as well as I know
Greek ? ' What century will it be when there will
be scholars who know the dialects of the Australian
blacks as well as we know the dialects of Greece ? '
(i. 232) asks our author. And what in the name
of Eleusis have dialects to do with the circumstance
that savages, like Greeks, use Rhombi in their
mysteries ? There are abundant other material facts,
visible palpable objects and practices, which savage
mysteries have in common with the Greek mysteries.^
If observed l^y deaf men, when used by dumb men,
instead of by scores of Europeans who could talk
the native languages, these illuminating rites of
savages would still be evidence. They have been
seen and described often, not by ' a casual native
informant' (who, perhaps, casually invented Greek
rites, and falsely attributed them to his tribesmen),
but by educated Europeans.

Abstract Ideas of Savages

Mr. Max MilUer defends, with j^erfect justice, the
existence of abstract ideas among contemporary
savages. It appears that somebody or other has
said — ' we have been told ' (i. 291) — ' that all this '
(the Mangaian theory of "the universe) ' must have
come from missionaries.' The ideas are as likely
to have come from Hegel as from a missionary !

1 Custom and Myth, i. 29-44. M. E. li. ii. 260-273.

T 2

I 1 6 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ix

Therefore, ' instead of looking for idols, or for totems
and fetishes, we must learn and accept what the
savages themselves are able to tell us. . . .' Yes, we
must learn and accept it ; so I have always urged. But
if the savages tell us about totems, are they not then
' casual native informants ' ? If a Maori tells you,
as he does, of traditional hymns containing ideas
worthy of Heraclitus, is tJiat quite trustworthy ;
whereas, if he tells you about his idols and taboos,
that cannot possibly be wortiiy of attention ?

Perception of the Infinite

From these extraordinary examples of abstract
thought in savages, our author goes on to say that
his theory of ' the perception of the Infinite ' as the
origin of religion was received ' with a storm of
unfounded obloquy' (i. 292). I myself criticised
the Ilibhert Lectures, in Mind ; ^ on reading the essay
over, I find no obloquy and no storm. I find, how-
ever, that I deny, what our author says that I
assert, the primitiveness of contemporary savages.

In that essa}'-, which, of course, our author had
no reason to read, much was said about fetishism,
a topic discussed by Mr. Max Miiller in his liibhert
Lectures. Fetishism is, as he says, an ill word, and
has caused much confusion.

Fetishism and Anthropological Method

Throughout much of his work our author's

object is to invalidate the anthropological method.

That method sets side by side the customs, ideas,

fables, myths, proverbs, riddles, rites, of different

' Custom and Myth, pp. 212-242.

ix] CRITICISM OF FETISHISM II J

races. Of their languages it does not necessarily
take account in this process. jSTobody (as we shall
see) knows the languages of all, or of most, of the
races whose ideas he compares. Now the learned
professor establishes the ' harm done ' by our
method in a given instance. He seems to think
that, if a method has been misapplied, therefore the
method itself is necessarily erroneous. The case
stands thus : De Brosses ^ first compared ' the so-
called fetishes ' of the Gold Coast with Greek and
Eoman amulets and other material objects of old
religions. But he did this, we learn, without trying
to find out why a negro made a fetish of a pebble,
shell, or tiger's tail, and without endeavouring to
discover whether the negro's motives really were the
motives of his ' postulated fetish worship ' in Greece,
Eome, or Palestine.

Origin of Fetishes
If so, tant pis pour monsieur le President. But
how does the unscientific conduct attributed to De
Brosses implicate the modern anthropologist? Do
we not try to find out, and really succeed sometimes
in finding out, lohy a savage cherishes this or that
scrap as a ' fetish ' ? I give a string of explanations
in Custom and Myth (pp. 229-230). Sometimes the
so-called fetish had an accidental, which was taken
to be a causal, connection with a stroke of good luck.
Sometimes the thing — an odd-shaped stone, say — had
a superficial resemblance to a desirable object, and
so was thought likely to aid in the acquisition of
such objects by ' sympathetic magic' ^

1 Culte lies Fetiches, 1760.

- Codrington, Journal Anthrop. Inst., Feb. 1881.

Il8 MODEEN MYTHOLOGY [ix

Other ' fetishes ' are revealed m dreams, or by
ghosts, or by spirits appearing in semblance of
animals.^

' Telekinetic ' Origin of Fetishism

As I write comes in Mehisine, viii. 7, with an
essay by M. Lefebure on Les Origines da Fetichisme.
He derives some fetishistic practices from what the
Melanesians call 3Iana, which, says Mr. Max Mliller,
' may often be rendered by supernatural or magic
power, present in an individual, a stone, or in formulas
or charms ' (i. 294). How, asks Mr. Lefebure, did
men come to attribute this vis vivida to persons and
things ? Because, in fact, he says, such an unexplored
force does really exist and display itself. He then
cites Mr. Crookes' observations on scientifically
registered ' telekinetic ' performances by Daniel
Dunglas Home, he cites De spine on Madame
Schmitz-Baud,^ with examples from Dr. Tylor, P.
de la Eissachere, Dr. Gibier,'^ and other authorities,
good or bad. Grouping, then, his facts under the
dubious title of le magnetisme, M. Lefebure finds in
savage observation of such facts ' the chief cause of
fetishism.'

Some of M. Lefebure's ' facts ' (of objects moving
untouched) were certainly frauds, like the tricks of
Eusapia. But, even if all the facts recorded were
frauds, such impostures, performed by savage con-
jurers, who certainly profess'* to produce the pheno-
mena, might originate, or help to originate, the
respect paid to ' fetishes ' and the belief in Maiia.
But probably Major Ellis's researches into the religion

1 C. and M. p. 230, note.

» Rochas, Les Forces non definies, 1888, pp. 340-3r)7, 411, 626.

» Revile Bleue, 1890, p. 367. " De Brosses, p. 16.

ix] CRITICISM OF FETISHISM I 1 9

of the Tslii- speaking races throw most hght on the real
ideas of African fetishists. The subject is vast and
complex. I am content to show that, whatever De
Brosses did, ice do not abandon a search for the
motives of the savage fetishist. Indeed, De Brosses
himself did seek and find at least one African
motive, ' The conjurers {jongleurs) persuade them
that little instruments in their possession are en-
dowed with a living spirit.' So far, fetishism is
spiritualism.

Civilised ' Fetishism '

De Brosses did not look among civilised fetish-
ists for the motives which he neglected among
savages (i. 196). Tant pis ijour monsieur le President.
But we and our method no more stand or fall with
De Brosses and his, than Mr. Max Miiller's etymo-
logies stand or fall with those in the Cratylus of Plato.
If, in a civilised people, ancient or modern, we
find a practice vaguely styled ' fetishistic,' we exa-
mine it in its details. While we have talismans,
amuletS; gamblers' fetiches., I do not think that, ex-
cept among some children, we have anything nearly
analogous to Gold Coast fetishism as a whole. Some
one seems to have called the jjalladium a fetish. I
don't exactly know what the pcdladium (called a
fetish by somebody) was. The hasfa fetialis has been
styled a fetish — an apparent abuse of language. As
to the Holy Cross qua fetish, why discuss such free-
thinking credulities ?

Modern anthropologists — Tylor, Frazer, and the
rest — are not under the censure appropriate to the
illogical.

I20 3I0DERN MYTHOLOGY [ix

More Mischiefs of Comparison

The 'Nemesis' (i. 196) of De Brosses' errors did
not stay in lier ravaging progress. Fetishism was
represented as ' the very beginning of rehgion,' first
among the negroes, then among all races. As I, for
one, persistently proclaim that the beginning of
religion is an inscrutable m^^stery, the Nemesis has
somehow left me scatheless, propitiated by my piety.
I said, long ago, ' the train of ideas which leads man
to believe in and to treasure fetishes is one ajiiong
the earliest sjy^'ings of religious belief.'^ But from
even this rather guarded statement I withdraw. ' No
man can watch the idea of God in the making or
in the beginning.' ^

Still more Nemesis

The new Nemesis is really that which I have just
put far from me — namely, that ' modern savages
represent everywhere the Eocene stratum of religion.'
They prohahly represent an early stage in religion,
just as, teste Mr. Max Miiller, they represent an early
stage in language. ' In savage languages we see what
we can no longer expect to see even in the most
ancient Sanskrit or Hebrew. We watch the child-
hood of language, with all its childish pranks.'^

Now, if the tongues spoken hy modern savages
represent the 'childhood' and 'childish pranks' of
language, why should the beliefs of modern savages
not represent the childhood and childish pranks of
religion ? I am not here averring that they do so,

1 C. and M. p. 214. " M. B. JR. i. 327.

^ Lectures on the Science of Language, 2nd series, p. 41.

1^] CRITICIS]\r OF FETISHISM 121

nor even that Mr. Max Mtiller is right in Ids remark
on language. The Austrahan blacks have been men as
long as the Prussian nobility. Their language has had
time to outgrow ' childish pranks,' but apparently it
has not made hse of its opportunities, according to
our critic. Does he know why ?

One need not reply to tbe charge that anthropo-
logists, if they are meant, regard modern savages ' as
just evolved from the earth, or the sky,' or from
monkeys (i. 197). 'Savages have afar-stretching
unknown histor}' behind them.' ' The past of savages,
I say, must have been a long past.' ^ So, once more,
the Nemesis of De Brosses fails to touch me — and,
of course, to touch more learned anthropologists.

There is yet another Nemesis — the postulate
that Aryans and Semites, or rather their ancestors,
must have passed through the savage state. Dr.
Tylor writes : — ' So far as history is to be our
criterion, progression is primary and degradation
secondary. Culture must he gained before it can he
lost.'' Now a person who has not gained what Dr.
Tylor calls ' culture ' {not in Mr. Arnold's sense) is a
man without tools, instruments, or clothes. He is
certainty, so far, like a savage ; is very much lower
in ' culture ' than any race with which we are
acquainted. As a matter of hypothesis, anyone may
say that man was born ' with everything handsome
about him.' He has then to account for the savage
elements in Greek myth and rite.

For Us or Against Us?
We now hear that the worst and last penalty paid
for De Brosses' audacious comparison of savage with

I M. B. B. ii. 327 aud 329.

122 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ix

civilised superstitions is the postulate that Aryan
and Semitic peoples have passed through a stage of
savagery. ' However different the languages, customs
and myths, the colour and the skulls of these modern
savages might be from those of Aryan and Semitic
people, the latter must once have passed through the
same stage, must once have been what the negroes of
the West Coast of Africa are to-day. This postulate
has not been, and, according to its very nature, cannot
be proved. But the mischief done by acting on such
postulates is still going on, and in several cases it
has come to this — that what in historical religions,
such as our own, is known to be the most modern,
the very last outcome, namely, the worship of relics
or a belief in amulets, has been represented as
the first necessary step in the evolution of all reli-
gions' (i. 197).

I really do not know who says that the prehistoric
ancestors of Aryans and Semites were once in the
same stage as the ' negroes of the West Coast of Africa
are to-day.' These honest fellows are well acquainted
with coined money, with the use of firearms, and
other resources of civilisation, and have been in
touch with missionaries. Miss Kingsley, traders, and
tourists. The ancestors of the Aryans and Semites
enjoyed no such advantages. Mr. Max Mliller does
not tell us who sa^^s that they did. But that the
ancestors of all mankind passed through a stage in
which they had to develop for themselves tools,
languages, clothes, and institutions, is assuredly the
belief of anthropologists. A race without tools,
language, clothes, pottery, and social institutions, or
with these in the shape of undeveloped speech, stone
knives, and 'possum or other skins, is what we call a

ix] CRITICISM OF FETISHISM I 23

race of savages. Sucli we Ijelieve the ancestors of
mankind to have been — at an}^ rate after the Fall.

Now when Mr. Max MuUer began to write his
book, he accepted this postulate of anthropology
(i. 15). When he reached i. 197 he abandoned and
denounced this postulate.

I quote his acceptance of the postulate (i. 15) : —

' Even Mr. A. Lang has to admit that we have
not got much beyond Fontenelle, when he wrote in
the last centur}^ :

' " Why are the legends [myths] about men, beasts,
and gods so wildly incredible and revolting ? . . .
The answer is that the earliest men were in a state of
almost inconceivable ignorance and savagery, and that
the Greeks inherited their m3^ths from people in the
same savage stage [en un pareil eiat de sauvagerie).
Look at the Kaffirs and Iroquois if you want to know
what the earliest men were like, and remember that
the very Iroquois and Kaffirs have a long past behind,
them " ' — that is to say, are polite and cultivated com-
pared to the earliest men of all.

Here is an uncompromising statement by Fonte-
nelle of the postulate that the Greeks (an Arj^an
people) must have passed through the same stage
as modern savages — Kaffirs and Iroquois — now
occupy. But (i. 15) Mr. Max Miiller eagerly ac-
cepts the postulate : —

' There is not a word of Fontenelle's to which I
should not gladly subscribe ; there is no advice of his
which I have not tried to follow in all my attempts
to explain the myths of India and Greece by an
occasional reference to Polynesian or African folk-
lore.'

124 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ix

Well, if Mr. Max MtlUer ' gladly subscribes,' in
p. 15, to the postulate of an original universal stage
of savagery, whence civilised races inherit their
incredibly repulsive myths, why, in pp. 197, 198,
does he denounce that very postulate as not proven,
not capable of being proved, ver}^ mischievous, and one
of the evils resulting from our method of comparing
savage and civilised rites and beliefs ? I must be
permitted to complain that I do not know which is
Mr. Max Mltller's real opinion — that given with such
hearty conviction in p. 15, or that stated with no
less earnestness in pp. 197, 198. I trust that I shall
not be thought to magnify a mere slip of the pen.
Both passages — though, as far as I can see, self-
contradictor}^ — appear to be written with the same
absence of levity. Fontenelle, I own, speaks ' of
Greeks, not Semites, as being originally savages. But
I pointed out ^ that he considered it safer to ' hedge '
by making an exception of the Israelites. There is
really nothing in Genesis against the contention that
the naked, tool-less, mean, and frivolous Adam was a

The Fallacy of ' Admits '

As the purpose of this essay is mainly logical,
I may point out the existence of a fallacy not marked,
I think, in handbooks of Logic. This is the fallacy of
saying that an opponent ' admits ' what, on the con-
trary, he has been the first to point out and proclaim.
He is thus suggested into an attitude which is the
reverse of his own. Some one — I am sorry to say
that I forget who he was — showed me that Fonte-

' M. B. B. ii. 324.

Tx] CRITICISM OF FETISHISM 1 25

nelle, in De I'Origine des Fables,'^ briefly stated the
anthropological theory of the origin of myths, or
at least of that rej^ulsive element in them which
' makes mythology mythological,' as Mr. Max Mliller
says. I was glad to have a predecessor in a past
less remote than that of Eusebins of Csesarea. ' A
briefer and better system of mythology,' T wrote,
' conld not be devised ; bnt the Mr. Casanbons of
this world have neglected it, and even now it is
beyond their comprehension.' ^ To say this in this
manner is not to ' admit that we have not o-ot
much beyond Fontenelle.' I do not want to get
beyond Fontenelle. I want to go back to his ' for-
gotten common-sense,' and to appl}^ his ideas with
method and criticism to a range of materials which
he did not possess or did not investigate.

ISTow, on p. 15, Mr. Max Mliller had got as far
as accepting Fontenelle; on pp. 197, 198 he burns,
as it were, that to which he had ' gladly subscribed.'

Conclusion as to our Method
All this discussion of fetishes arose out of our
author's selection of the subject as an example
of the viciousness of our method. He would not
permit us ' simply to place side by side ' savage and
Greek myths and customs, because it did harm
(i. 195) ; and the harm done was proved by the
Nemesis of De Brosses. Now, first, a method may
be a good method, yet may be badly applied.
Secondly, I have shown that the Nemesis does
not attach to all of us modern anthropologists.
Thirdly, I have proved (unless I am under some

1 Paris : CEuvres, 1758, iii. 270. - M. R. E. ii. 324.

126 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [ix

misapprehension, which I vainly attempt to detect,
and for which, if it exists, I apologise humbly) that
Mr. Max MuUer, on p. 15, accepts the doctrine
which he denounces on p. 197.^ Again, I am entirely
at one with Mr. Max MilUer when he says (p. 210)
' we have as yet really no scientific treatment of
Shamanism.' This is a pressing need, but probably
a physician alone could do the work — a physician
double with a psychologist. See, however, the
excellent pages in Dr. Tylor's Primitive Culture,
and in Mr. William James's Princijiles of Psychology ,
on ' Mediumship.'

^ I have no concern with his criticism of Mr. Herbert Spencer
(p. 203), as I entirely disagree with that philosopher's theory. The
defence of ' Animism ' I leave to Dr. Tylor.

127

THE RIDDLE THEORY

What the Philological Theory Weeds

The great desideratum of the philological method is
a proof that the ' Disease of Language,' ex hypothesi
the most fertile source of myths, is a vera causa.
Do simple poetical phrases, descriptive of heavenly
phenomena, remain current in the popular mouth
after the meanings of appellatives (Bright One, Dark
One, &c.) have been forgotten, so that these appella-
tives become proper names — Apollo, Daphne, &c. ?
Mr. Max Mliller seems to think some proof of this
process as a vera causa may be derived from ' Folk
Eiddles.'

The Riddle Theory

We now come, therefore, to the author's treat-
ment of popular riddles [deviuettes), so common
among savages and peasants. Their construction is
simple : anything in Nature you please is described
by a poetical periphrasis, and you are asked what it
is. Thus Geistiblindr asks,

What is the Dark One
That goes over the earth,
Swallows water and wood,
But is afraid of the wind ? &c.

Or we find.

What is the gold spun from one window to another ?

The answers, the obvious answers, are (1) ' mist '
and (2) ' sunshine.'

128 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [x

In Mr. Max Milller's opinion these riddles ' could

not but lead to what we call popular myths or

legends.' Very probably ; but this does not aid us

to accept the philological method. The very essence

of that method is the presumed absolute loss of

the meaning of, e.g. ' the Dark One.' Before

there can be a myth, ex hypothesi the words Dark Otie

must have become hopelessly unintelligible, must

have become a proper name. Thus suppose, for

argument's sake only, that Cronos once meant Dark

One, and was understood in that sense. People (as

in the Norse riddle just cited) said, ' Cronos [i.e. the

Dai'k One — meaning mist] swallows water and

wood.' Then, they forgot that Cronos was their old

word for the Dark One, and was mist ; but they kept

up, and understood, all the rest of the phrase about

what mist does. The expression now ran, ' Cronos

[whatever that may be] swallows water and wood.'

But water comes from mist, and water nourishes

wood, therefore ' Cronos swallows his children.'

Such would be the development of a myth on Mr,

Max Midler's system. He would interpret ' Cronos

swallows his children,' by finding, if he could, the

original meaning of Cronos. Let us say that he did

discover it to mean ' the Dark One.' Then he might

think Cronos meant ' night ; ' ' mist ' he would hardly

guess.

That is all very clear, but the point is this — in

devinettes, or riddles, the meaning of ' the Dark One '

is 7iot lost : —

' Thy riddle is easij
Blind Gest,
To read ' —

Heidrick answers.

x] THE EIDDLE THEORY 1 29

What tlie philological method of mythology
needs is to prove that such poetical statements about
natural phenomena as the devinettes contain survived
in the popular mouth, and were perfectly intelligible
except just the one mot denigme — say, ' the Dark
One.' That (call it Cronos='Dark One '), and that
alone, became unintelligible in the changes of lan-
guage, and so had to be accepted as a proper name,
Cronos — a god who swallows things at large.

Where is the proof of such endurance of intelligible
phrases with just the one central necessary word ob-
solete and changed into a mysterious proper name ?
The world is full of proper names which have lost
their meaning — Athene, Achilles, Artemis, and
so on but we need proof that poetical sayings, or
riddles, survive and are intelligible except one word,
which, being unintelligible, becomes a proper name.
Eiddles, of course, prove nothing of this kind : —

Thy riddle is easy
Blind Gest
To read !

Yet Mr. Max Mllller ojQfers the suggestion that the
obscurity of many of these names of mythical gods
and heroes ' may fee due .... to the riddles to
which they had given rise, and which would have
ceased to be riddles if the names had been clear
and intelligible, like those of Helios and Selene '
(i. 92). People, he thinks, in making riddles 'would
avoid the ordinary appellatives, and the use of
little-known names in most mythologies would thus
find an intelligible explanation.' Again, ' we can see
how essential it was that in such mythological
riddles the principal agents should not be called by

130 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [x

their regular names.' This last remark, indeed, is
obvious. To return to the Norse riddle of the Dark
One that swallows wood and water. It would never
do in a riddle to call the Dark One by his ordinary-
name, ' Mist.' You would not amuse a rural audience
by asking ' What is the mist that swallows wood
and water ? ' That would be even easier than Mr.
Burnand's riddle for very hot weather : —

My first is a boot, my second is a jack.

Conceivably Mr. Max Miiller may mean that in
riddles an almost obsolete word was used to desig-
nate the object. Perhaps, instead of ' the Dark One,*
a peasant would say, ' What is the Eooky One ? ' But
as soon as nobody knew what ' the Eooky One '
meant, the riddle would cease to exist — Eooky. One
and all. You cannot imagine several generations
asking each other —

What is the Rooky One that swallows ?

if nobody knew the answer. A man who kept
boring people with a mere ' sell ' would be scouted ;
and with the death of the answerless riddle the diffi-
cult word ' Eooky ' would die. But Mr. Max Miiller
says, ' Eiddles would cease to be riddles if the names
had been clear and intelligible.' The reverse is the
fact. In the riddles he gives there are seldom any
' names ; ' but the epithets and descriptions are as
clear as words can be : —

Who are the mother and children in a house, all having
bald heads ?— The moon and stars.

Languao'e cannot be clearer. Yet the riddle has not
' ceased to be a riddle,' as Mr. Max Miiller thinks

x] THE KIDDLE THEORY 131

it must do, though the words are ' clear and intel-
ligible.' On the other hand, if the language is not
clear and intelligible, the riddle would cease to exist.
It would not amuse if nobody understood it. You
might as well try to make yourself socially accept-
able by putting conundrums in Etruscan as by
asking riddles in words not clear and intelligible in
themselves, though obscure in their reference. The
difficulty of a riddle consists, not in the obscurity of
words or names, but in the description of familiar
things by terms, clear as terms, denoting their
appearance and action. The mist is described as
' dark,' ' swallowing,' ' one that fears the wind,' and
so forth. The words are pellucid.

Thus 'ordinary appellatives' (i. 99) are not
' avoided ' in riddles, though names (sun, mist) can-
not be used in the question because they give the
answer to the riddle.

For all these reasons ancient riddles cannot
explain the obscurity of mythological names. As
soon as the name was too obscure, the riddle and
the name would be forgotten, would die together.
So we know as little as ever of the purely hypo-
thetical process by which a riddle, or popular poetical
saying, remains intelligible in a language, while the
7not d'enigjne, becoming unintelligible, turns into a
proper name — say, Cronos. Yet the belief in this
process as a vera causa is essential to our author's
method.

Here Mr. Max Miiller warns us that his riddle
theory is not meant to explain ' the obscurities of all
mythological names. This is a stratagem that should
be stopped from the very first.' It were more grace-
ful to have said ' a misapprehension.'

K 2

132 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [x

Another ' stratagem ' I myself must guard against.
I do not say that no unintelligible strings of obsolete
words may continue to live in the popular mouth.
Old hymns, ritual speeches, and charms may and do
survive, though unintelligible. They are reckoned
all the more potent, because all the more mysterious.
But an unintelligible riddle or poetical saying does
not survive, so we cannot thus account for mythology
as a disease of language.

Mordvinian Mythology

Still in the very natural and laudable pursuit of
facts which will support the hypothesis of a disease
of language, Mr. Max Miiller turns to Mordvinian
mythology. ' We have the accounts of real scholars '
about Mordvinian prayers, charms, and proverbs
(i. 235). The Mordvinians, Ugrian tribes, have the
usual departmental Nature-gods — as Chkai, god of
the sun (c/u*=sun). He ' lives in the sun, or is the sun '
(i. 236). His wife is the Earth or earth goddess,
Vediava. They have a large family, given to incest.
The morals of the Mordvinian gods are as lax as
those of Mordvinian mortals. (Compare the myths
and morals of Samos, and the Samian Hera.)
Athwart the decent god Chkai comes the evil god
Chaitan — obviously Shaitan, a Mahommedan con-
tamination. There are plenty of minor gods, and
spirits good and bad. Dawn was a Mordvinian
girl ; in Australia she was a luhra addicted to
lubricity.

How does this help philological mythology ?

Mr. Max Miiller is pleased to find solar and
other elemental gods among the Mordvinians. But
the discovery in no wa}^ aids his special theory.

x] THE EIDDLE THEORY 133

Nobody has ever denied that gods who are the sun
or Uve in the sun are famihar, and are the centres
of myths among most races. I give examples in
C. and M. (pp. 104, 133, New Zealand and North
America) and in M. R. R. (i. 124-135, America,
Africa, Australia, Aztec, Hervey Islands, Samoa,
and so on). Such Nature-myths — of sun, sky, earth
— are perhaps universal ; but they do not arise from
disease of language. These myths deal with natural
phenomena plainly and explicitly. The same is the
case among the Mordvinians. ' The few names
preserved to us are clearly the names of the agents
behind the salient phenomena of Nature, in some
cases quite intelligible, in others easily restored to
their original meaning.' The meanings of the names
not being forgotten, but obvious, there is no disease
of language. All this does not illustrate the case of
Greek divine names by resemblance, but by difference.
Eeal scholars know what Mordvinian divine names
mean. They do not know what many Greek divine
names mean — as Hera, Artemis, Apollo, Athene ;
there is even much dispute about Demeter.

No anthropologist, I hope, is denying that
Nature-myths and Nature-gods exist. We are only
fighting against the philological effort to get at the
elemental phenomena which may be behind Hera,
Artemis, Athene, Apollo, by means of contending-
etymological conjectures. We only oppose the philo-
logical attempt to account for all the features in a
god's myth as manifestations of the elemental
qualities denoted by a name which may mean at
pleasure dawn, storm, clear air, thunder, wind,
twilight, water, or what you will. Granting Clikai'
to be the sun, does that explain why he punishes

134 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [x

people who bake bread on Friday? (237.) Our
opponent does not seem to understand the 2'>ortee of
our objections. The same remarks apply to the
statement of Finnish mythology here given, and
familiar in the Kalewala. Departmental divine
beings of natural phenomena we find everywhere, or
nearly everywhere, in company, of course, with other
elements of belief — totemism, worship of spirits,
perhaps with monotheism in the background. That
is as much our opinion as Mr. Max Miiller's. What
we are opposing is the theory of disease of language,
and the attempt to explain, by philological conjectures,
gods and heroes whose obscure names are the only
sources of information.

Helios is the sun-god ; he is, or lives in, the sun.
Apollo may have been the sun-god too, but we still
distrust the attempts to prove this by contending
guesses at the origin of his name. Moreover, if all
Greek gods could be certainly explained, by undis-
puted etymologies, as originally elemental, we still
object to such logic as that which turns Saranyu into
' grey dawn.' We still object to the competing inter-
pretations by which almost every detail of very
composite myths is explained as a poetical descrip-
tion of some elemental process or phenomenon.
Apollo may once have been the sun, but why did he
make love as a dog ?

Lettish Mythology

These remarks apply equally well to our author's
dissertation on Lettish mythology (ii. 430 et seq.).
The meaning of statements about the sun and sky ' is
not to be mistaken in the mythology of the Letts.' So

x] THE RIDDLE THEORY 1 35

here is no disease of language. The meaning is not
to be mistaken. Sun and moon and so on are
spoken of by their natural unmistakable names, or
in equally unmistakable poetical periphrases, as in
riddles. The daughter of the sun hung a red cloak
on a great oak-tree. This ' can hardly have been
meant for anything but the red of the evening or
the setting sun, sometimes called her red cloak '
(ii. 439). Exactly so, and the Australians of En-
counter Bay also think that the sun is a woman.
' She has a lover among the dead, who has given her
a red kangaroo skin, and in this she appears at her
rising.' ^ This tale was told to Mr. Meyer in 1846,
before Mr. Max Mliller's Dawn had become ' inevit-
able,' as he says.

The Lettish and Australian myths are folk-poetry ;
they have nothing to do with a disease of language
or forgotten meanings of words which become proper
names. All this is surely distinct. We proclaim the
abundance of poetical Nature-myths ; we ' disable '
the hypothesis that they arise from a disease of
language.

The Chances of Fancy
One remark has to be added. Mannhardt re-
garded many or most of the philological solutions
of gods into dawn or sun, or thunder or cloud, as
empty jeux d esprit. And justly, for there is no
name named among men which a philologist cannot
easily prove to be a synonym or metaphorical term
for wind or weather, dawn or sun. Whatever attribute
any word connotes, it can be shown to connote some

1 Meyer, 1846, apud Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 432.

136 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [x

attribute of dawn or sun. Here parody comes in,
and gives a not overstrained copy of the method,
applying it to Mr. Gladstone, Dr. Nansen, or whom
you please. And though a jest is not a refutation,
a parody may plainly show the absolutely capricious
character of the philological method.

^Z7

XI
ARTEMIS

I DO not here examine our author's constructive work.
I have often criticised its logical method before,
and need not repeat myself. The etymologies, of
course, I leave to be discussed by scholars. As we
have seen, they are at odds on the subject of phonetic
laws and their application to mythological names.
On the mosses and bogs of this Debatable Land
some of them propose to erect the science of com-
parative mythology. Meanwhile we look on, waiting
till the mosses shall support a ponderous edifice.

Our author's treatment of Artemis, however, has
for me a peculiar interest (ii. 733-743). I really
think that it is not mere vanity which makes me
suppose that in this instance I am at least one of
the authors whom Mr. Max Miiller is writing about
without name or reference. If so, he here sharply
distinguishes between me on the one hand and ' clas-
sical scholars ' on the other, a point to which we shall
return. He says — I cite textually (ii. 732) : —

Artemis

' The last of the great Greek goddesses whom we
have to consider is Artemis. Her name, we shall
see, has received many interpretations, but none
that can be considered as well established — none
that, even if it were so, would help us much in dis-
entangling the many myths told about her. Easy to

138 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xi

understand as her character seems when we confine
our attention to Homer, it becomes extremely com-
plicated when we take into account the numerous
local forms of worship of which she was the object.

' We have here a good opportunity of comparing
the interpretations put forward by those who think
that a study of the myths and customs of uncivilised
tribes can help us towards an understanding of Greek
deities, and the vieivs advocated by classical scholars ^
who draw their information, first of all, from Greek
sources, and afterwards only from a comparison of
the myths and customs of cognate races, more par-
ticularly from what is preserved to us in ancient
Yedic literature, before they plunge into the whirlpool
of ill-defined and unintelligible Kafir folklore. The
former undertake to explain Artemis by showing us
the progress of human intelligence from the coarsest
spontaneous and primitive ideas to the most beauti-
ful and brilliant conception of poets and sculptors.
They point out traces of hideous cruelties amounting
almost to cannibalism, and of a savage cult of beasts
in the earlier history of the goddess, who was cele-
brated by dances of young girls disguised as bears
or imitating the movements of bears, &c. She was
represented as TroXvixacrTos, and this idea, we are told,
was borrowed from the East, which is a large term.
We are told that her most ancient history is to be
studied in Arkadia, where we can see the goddess
still closely connected with the worship of animals, a
characteristic feature of the lowest stage of religious
worship among the lowest races of mankind. We
are then told the old story of Lykaon, the King
of Arkadia, who had a beautiful daughter called
Kallisto. As Zeus fell in love with her, Hera from
jealousy changed her into a bear, and Artemis killed

1 My italics.

xi] ARTEMIS 139

her with one of her arrows. Her child, however,
was saved by Hermes, at the command of Zeus ; and
while Kallisto was changed to the constellation of
the Ursa, her son Arkas became the ancestor of the
Arkadians. Here, we are told, we have a clear
instance of men being the descendants of animals,
and of women being changed into wild beasts and
stars — beliefs well known among the Cahrocs and the
Kamilarois.'

Here I recognise Mr. Max Midler's version of my
remarks on Artemis.^ Our author has just remarked
in a footnote that Schwartz ' does not mention the
title of the book where his evidence has been given.'
It is an inconvenient practice, but with Mr. Max
MllUer this reticence is by no means unusual. He
' does not mention the book where ' my ' evidence is
given.'

Anthropologists are here (unless I am mistaken)
contrasted with ' classical scholars who draw their in-
formation, first of all, from Greek sources.' I need
not assure anyone who has looked into my imperfect
works that I also drew my information about Artemis
' first of all from Greek sources,' in the original.
Many of these sources, to the best of my knowledge,
are not translated : one, Homer, I have translated
myself, with Professor Butcher and Messrs. Leaf and
Myers, my old friends.

The idea and representation of Artemis as
TToXv/xacTTo? (many -breasted), ' we are told, was
borrowed from the East, a large term.' I say ' she
is even blended in ritual with a monstrous many-
breasted divinity of Oriental religion."- Is this 'large

1 M. B. R. ii. 208-221. - Ibid. ii. 209.

I40 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xi

term ' too vague ? Then consider the Artemis of
Ephesus and ' the alabaster statuette of the goddess '
in Roscher's Lexikon, p. 558. Compare, for an Occi-
dental parallel, the many-breasted goddess of the
maguey plant, in Mexico.^ Our author writes, ' we
are told that Artemis's most ancient history is to be
studied in Arkadia.' My words are, ' The Attic and
Arcadian legends of Artemis are confessedly among
the oldest.' Why should ' Attic ' and the qualifying
phrase be omitted ?

Otfried Miiller

Mr. Max Miiller goes on — citing, as I also do,
Otfried Miiller :— ' Otfried Miiller in 1825 treated the
same myth without availing himself of the light now
to be derived from the Cahrocs and the Kamilarois.
He quoted Pausanias as stating that the tumulus of
Kallisto was near the sanctuary of Artemis Kalliste,
and he simply took Kallisto for an epithet of Artemis,
which, as in many other cases, had been taken for a
separate personahty.' Otfried also pointed out, as
we both say, that at Brauron, in Attica, Artemis was
served by young maidens called ap/crot (bears) ; and
he concluded, ' This cannot possibly be a freak of
chance, but the metamorphosis [of Kallisto] has its
foundation in the fact that the animal [the bear] was
sacred to the goddess.'

Thus it is acknowledged that Artemis, under her
name of Callisto, was changed into a she-bear, and
had issue, Arkas — whence the Arcadians. Mr. Max
Miiller proceeds (ii. 734) — ' He [Otfried] did not go
so far as some modern mythologists who want us to

1 M. B. B. ii. 218.

xi] ARTEMIS 141

believe that originally the animal, the she-bear, was
the goddess, and that a later worship had replaced
the ancient worship of the animal y;iw" et simjile.'

Did I, then, tell anybody that ' originally the
she-bear was the goddess ' ? No, I gave my reader,
not a dogma, but the choice between two alternative
hypotheses. I said, ' It will become probable that
the she-bear actually was the goddess at an ex-
tremely remote period, or at all events that the
goddess succeeded to, and threw her protection over,
an ancient worship of the animal ' (ii. 212, 213).

Mr. Max MilUer's error, it will be observed, con-
sists in writing ' and ' where I wrote ' or.' To make
such rather essential mistakes is human ; to give
references is convenient, and not unscholarly.

In fact, this is Mr. Max Mtiller's own opinion, for
he next reports his anonymous author (myself) as
saying (' we are now told '), ' though without any refer-
ence to Pausanias or any other Greek writers, that
the young maidens, the ap/crot, when dancing around
Artemis, were clad in bearskins, and that this is
a pretty frequent custom in the dances of totemic
races. In support of this, however, we are not
referred to really totemic races . . . but to the Hirpi
of Italy, and to the Alos kwSojv in Egypt.' Of course
I never said that the apKTot danced around Artemis !
I did say, after observing that they were described
as ' playing the bear,' ' they even in archaic ages
wore bear-skins,' for which I cited Glaus ^ and re-
ferred to Suchier,^ including the reference in brackets
[ ] to indicate that I borrowed it from a book

' De Diance Antiquisshna apud Grcecos Natura, p. 76. Vratis-
law, 1881.

- De Diane Brauron, p. 33. Compare, for all the learning, Mr.
Farnell, in Cults of the GrceT: States.

142 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xi

which I was unable to procure.^ I then gave refer-
ences for the classical use of a saffron vest by the

apKTOL.

Beast Dances

For the use of beast-skins in such dances among
totemists I cite Bancroft (iii. 168) and [M. R. R. ii.
107) Eobinson ^ (same authority). I may now also
refer to Eobertson Smith : ^ ' the meaning of such a
disguise [a fish-skin, among the Assyrians] is well
known from many savage rituals ; it means that the
worshipper presents himself as a fish,' as a bear,
or what not.^ Doubtless I might have referred more
copiously to savage rituals, but really I thought that
savage dances in beast-skins were familiar from
Catlin's engravings of Mandan and Nootka wolf or
buffalo dances. I add that the Brauronian rites ' point
to a time when the goddess was herself a bear,' having
suggested an alternative theory, and added confirma-
tion.'^ But I here confess that while beast-dances and
wearing of skins of sacred beasts are common, to
prove these sacred beasts to be totems is another
matter. It is so far inferred rather than demon-
strated. Next I said that the evolution of the bear
into the classical Artemis ' almost escapes our inquiiy.
We find nothing more akin to it than the relaticjn
borne by the Samoan gods to the various totems in
which they are supposed to be manifest.' This Mr.
Max Mliller quotes (of course, without reference or
marks of quotation) and adds, ' pace Dr. Codrington.'

1 M. B. B. i. X. - Life in California, pp. 241, 303.

^ Beligion of the Semites, p. 274.

^ See also Mr. Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 90-94 ; and Eobertson
Smith, op. cit. pp. 416-418.

[^ Apostolius, viii. 19 ; vii. 10.]

xi] ARTEMIS 143

Have I incurred Dr. Codrington's feud ? He doubts
or denies totems in Melanesia. Is Samoa in Melanesia,
■pa7- exemple?^ Our author (i. 206) says that 'Dr.
Codrington will have no totems in his islands.' But
Samoa is not one of the doctor's fortunate isles. For
Samoa I refer, not to Dr. Codrington, but to Mr.
Turner.^ In Samoa the ' clans ' revere each its own
sacred animals, ' but combine with it the belief that
the spiritual deity reveals itself in each separate
animal.' ^ I expressly contrast the Samoan creed with
* pure totemism.' *

So much for our author's success in stating and
criticising my ideas. If he pleases, I will not speak
of Samoan totems, but of Samoan sacred animals.
It is better and more exact.

The View of Classical Scholars
They (ii. 735) begin by pointing out Artemis's
connection with Apollo and the moon. So do I !
' If Apollo soon disengages himself from the sun . . .
Artemis retains as few traces of any connection with
the moon.' ^ ' If Apollo was of solar origin,' asks
the author (ii. 735), 'what could his sister Artemis
have been, from the very beginning, if not some
goddess connected with the moon ? ' Very likely ;
quis negavitf Then our author, like myself iloc. cit.),
dilates on Artemis as ' sister of Apollo.' ' Her chapels,'
I say, ' are in the wild wood ; she is the abbess of
the forest nymphs,' ' chaste and fair, the maiden of
the precise life.' How odd ! The classical scholar
and I both say the same things ; and I add a sonnet
to Artemis in this aspect, rendered by me from the

^ Melanesians, p. 32. - Samoa, p. 17. ^ M, E. R. ii. 33.

•* See also Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 92. ' M. R. R. ii. 208.

144 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xi

Hippolytus of Euripides. Could a classical scholar
do more? Our author then says that the Greek
sportsman ' surprised the beasts in their lairs ' by
night. Not very sportsmanlike ! I don't find it in
Homer or in Xenophon. Oh for exact references !
The moon, the nocturnal sportswoman, is Artemis ;
here we have also the authority of Theodore de
Banville [Diane court dans la noire fork). And the
nocturnal hunt is Dians; so she is protectress of
the chase. Exactly what I said ! ^

All this being granted by me beforehand (though
possibly that might not be guessed from my critic),
our author will explain Artemis's human sacrifice of a
girl in a fawn-skin — bloodshed, bear and all — with
no aid from Kamilarois, Cahrocs, and Samoans.

Mr. Max Miiller's Explanation

Greek races traced to Zeus — usually disguised, for
amorous purposes, as a brute. The Arcadians had
an eponymous heroic ancestor, ' Areas ; ' they also
worshipped Artemis. Artemis, as a virgin, could
not become a mother of Areas by Zeus, or by any-
body. Callisto was also Artemis. Callisto was the
mother of Areas. But, to save the character of
Artemis, Callisto was now represented as one of her
nymphs. Then, Areas reminding the Arcadians of
ap/cTo? (a bear), while they knew the Bear constella-
tion, ' what was more natural than that Callisto
should be changed into an arktos, a she -bear . . .
placed by Zeus, her lover, in the sky ' as the Bear ?

Nothing could be more natural to a savage ; they
all do it.^ But that an Aryan, a Greek, should talk

1 M. B. B. ii. 209. ^ Custom and Myth, ' Star Myths.'

xr] ARTEMIS 1 45

such nonsense as to say that he was the descendant
of a bear who was changed into a star, and all merely
because ' Areas reminded the Arcadians of arldos^
seems to me an extreme test of belief, and a very
unlikely thing to occur.

Wider Application of the Theory

Let us apply the explanation more widely. Say
that a hundred animal names are represented in the
known totem-kindreds of the world. Then had
each such kin originally an eponymous hero whose
name, like that of Areas in Arcady, accidentally
' reminded ' his successors of a beast, so that a hun-
dred beasts came to be claimed as ancestors ? Per-
haps this was what occurred ; the explanation, at all
events, fits the wolf of the Delawares and the other
ninety-nine as well as it fits the Arcades. By a
curious coincidence all the names of eponymous
heroes chanced to remind people of beasts. But
whence come the names of eponymous heroes ? From
their tribes, of course — Ion from lonians, Dorus from
Dorians, and so on. Therefore (in the hundred
cases) the names of the tribes derive from names of
animals. Indeed, the names of totem-kins are the
names of animals — wolves, bears, cranes. Mr. Max
Miiller remarks that the name ' Arcades ' may come
from apKTos, a bear (i. 738) ; so the Arcadians (Pro-
selenoi, the oldest of races, ' men before the moon ')
may be — Bears. So, of course (in this case), they
would necessarily be Bears before they invented Areas,
an eponymous hero whose name is derived from the
pre-existing tribal name. His name, then, could not,
before they invented it, remind them of a bear. It was
from their name ""ApKTOL (Bears) that they developed

146 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xi

his name Areas, as in all such eases of eponymous
heroes. I slightly ineline to hold that this is exaetly
what occurred. A bear-kin claimed descent from
a bear, and later, developing an eponymous hero,
Areas, regarded him as son of a bear. Philologically
' it is possible ; ' I say no more.

The Bear Dance
' The dances of the maidens called apK-rot would
receive an easy interpretation. They were Arkades,
and why not apKjoi (bears) ? ' And if apKTOL, why not
clad in bear-skins, and all the rest? (ii. 738). This
is our author's explanation ; it is also my own con-
jecture. The Arcadians were bears, knew it, and pos-
sibly danced a bear dance, as Mandans or Nootkas
dance a buffalo dance or a wolf dance. But all such
dances are not totemistic. They have often other
aims. One only names such dances totemistic when
performed by people who call themselves b}' the
name of the animal represented, and claim descent
from him. Our author says genially, ' if anj'body
prefers to say that the arctos was something like a
totem of the Arcadians . . . why not ? ' But, if the
arctos was a totem, that fact explains the Callisto
story and Attic bear dance, while the philological
theory — Mr. Max Miiller's theory — does not explain it.
What is oddest of all, Mr. Max Miiller, as we have
seen, says that the bear-dancing girls were ' Arkades.'
Now we hear of no bear dances in Arcadia. The
dancers were Athenian girls. This, indeed, is the
point. We have a bear Callisto (Artemis) in Arcady,
where a folk etymology might explain it by stretch-
ing a point. But no etymology will explain bear
dances to Artemis in Attica. So we find bears

xi] ARTEMIS 147

doubly connected with Artemis. The Athenians were
not Arcadians.

As to the meaning and derivation of Artemis, or
Artamis, our author knows nothing (ii. 741). I
say, ' even "^p/cre/xt? (ap/cros, bear) has occurred to
inventive men.' Possibly I invented it myself, though
not addicted to etymological conjecture.

L 2

148 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xn

XII
THE FIRE- WALK

Tlie Method of Psychical Research

As a rule, mythology asks for no aid from Psychical
Eesearch. But there are problems in religious rite
and custom where the services of the Cendrillon of
the sciences, the despised youngest sister, may be of
use. As an example I take the famous mysterious
old Fire-rite of the Hirpi, or wolf-kin, of Mount
Soracte. I shall first, following Mannhardt, and
making use of my own trifling researches in ancient
literature, describe the rite itself.

Mount Soracte
Everyone has heard of Mount Soracte, white
with shining snow, the peak whose distant cold gave
zest to the blazing logs on the hearth of Horace.
Within sight of his windows was practised, by men
calling themselves ' wolves ' {Ilirpi), a rite of extreme
antiquity and enigmatic character. On a peak of
Soracte, now Monte di Silvestre, stood the ancient
temple of Soranus, a Sabine sun-god.^ Virgil ^ iden-
tifies Soranus with Apollo. At the foot of the cliff
was the precinct of Feronia, a Sabine goddess.
Mr. Max Miiller says that Feronia corresponds to the
Vedic Bhuranyu, a name of Agni, the Vedic fire-god

' L. Preller, Bom. Myth. p. 239, gives etymologies.
- Mn. xi. 785.

xii] THE FIRE-WALK 1 49

(ii. 800). Mannhardt prefers, of course, a deriva-
tion from far (grain), as in confarreatio, the ancient
Eoman bride-cake form of marriage. Feronia Mater
= Sanskrit hharsani mata, Getreide Mutter} It is a
pity that philologists so rarely agree in their etymo-
logies. In Greek the goddess is called Anthephorus,
Philostephanus, and even Persephone — probably the
Persephone of flowers and garlands."

Hirpi Sorani

Once a year a fete of Soranus and Feronia was
held, in the precinct of the goddess at Soracte. The
ministrants were members of certain local families
called Hirpi (wolves). Pliny says,^ ' A few families,
styled Hirpi, at a yearly sacrifice, walk over a burnt
pile of wood, yet are not scorched. On this account
they have a perpetual exemption, by decree of the
Senate, from military and all other services.' Virgil
makes Aruns say,'^ ' Highest of gods, Apollo, guardian
of Soracte, thou of whom we are the foremost wor-
shippers, thou for whom the burning pile of pinewood
is fed, while we, strong in faith, walk through the
midst of the fire, and press our footsteps in the glowing
mass. . . .' Strabo gives the same facts. Servius,
the old commentator on Virgil, confuses the Hirpi,
not unnaturally, with the Sabine ' clan,' the Hirpini.
He says,^ ' Varro, always an enemy of religious
belief, writes that the Hirpini, when about to walk
the fire, smear the soles of their feet with a drug '
{medicamentum). Silius Italicus (v. 175) speaks
of the ancient rite, when ' the holy bearer of the
bow (Apollo) rejoices in the kindled pyres, and the

1 A. W. F. p. 328. " Dionys. Halic. iii. 32.

3 Hist. Nat. vii. 2. ■* Mn. xi. 784. ^ ^En. xi. 787.

150 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

ministrant thrice gladly bears entrails to the god
tlirough the harmless flames.' Servius gives an
astiological myth to account for the practice.
' Wolves came and carried off the entrails from
the fire ; shepherds, following them, were killed
by mortal vapours from a cave ; thence ensued a
pestilence, because they had followed the wolves.
An oracle bade them " play the wolf," i.e. live on
plunder, whence they were called Hirpi, wolves,' an
attempt to account for a wolf clan-name. There is
also a story that, when the grave of Feronia seemed
all on fire, and the people were about carrying off
the statue, it suddenly grew green again. ^

Mannhardt decides that the so-called wolves
leaped through the sun-god's fire, in the interest of
the health of the community. He elucidates this by
a singular French popular custom, held on St. John's
Eve, at Jumieges. The Brethren of the Green Wolf
select a leader called Green Wolf, there is an eccle-
siastical procession, cure and all, a souper maigre, the
lighting of the usual St. John's fire, a dance round
the fire, the capture of next year's Green Wolf, a
mimicry of throwing him into the fire, a revel, and
next day a loaf of pain benit, above a pile of green
leaves, is carried about. ^

The wolf, thinks Mannhardt, is the Vegetation-spirit
in animal form. Many examples of the ' Corn-wolf in
popular custom are given by Mr. Frazer in The Golden
Bough (ii. 3-6). The Hirpi of Soracte, then, are so
called because they play the part of Corn-wolves, or
Kornddmonen in wolf shape. But Mannhardt adds,
' this seems., at least, to be the explanation.' He
then combats Kuhn's theory of Feronia as lightning

1 Serv. JEn. vii. 800. - Authorities in A. F. W. K. p. 325.

xn] THE FIRE-WALK 151

goddess.^ He next compares the strange Arcadian
cannibal rites on Mount Lycseus.-

Mannhardt's Deficiency
In all this ingenious reasoning, Mannhardt misses
a point. Wliat the Hirpi did was not merety to leap
through light embers, as in the Eoman Pali/ia,
and the parallel doings in Scotland, England, France,
and elsewhere, at Midsummer (St. John's Eve). The
Hirpi would not be freed from military service
and all other State imposts for merely doing what
any set of peasants do yearly for nothing. Nor
would Varro have found it necessary to explain so
easy and common a feat by the use of a drug with
which the feet were smeared. Mannhardt, as Mr.
Max Mliller says, ventured himself little ' among red
skins and black skins.' He read Dr. Tylor, and
appreciated the method of illustrating ancient rites
and beliefs from the living ways of living savages.^
But, in practice, he mainly confined himself to illus-
trating ancient rites and beliefs by survival in modern
rural folk-lore. I therefore supplement Mannhardt's
evidence from European folk-lore by evidence from
savage life, and by a folk-lore case which Mannhardt
did not know.

The Fire-walk

A modern student is struck by the cool way in
which the ancient poets, geographers, and commen-
tators mention a startling circumstance, the Fire-walk.
The only hint of explanation is the statement that the
drug or juice of herbs preserved the Hirpi from harm.

^ Herabkiinft, p. 30. - Paiisanias, viii. 385.

^ A. W. F. K. xxii. xxiii.

152 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

That theory may be kept in mind, and applied if it
is found useful. Virgil's theory that the ministrants
walk, pietatefreti, corresponds to Mrs. Wesley's belief,
when, after praying, she ' waded the flames ' to rescue
her children from the burning parsonage at Epworth.
The hypothesis of lamblichus, when he writes about
the ecstatic or ' possessed ' persons who cannot be
injured by fire, is like that of modern spiritualists —
the ' spirit ' or ' deemon ' preserves them unharmed.

I intentionally omit cases which are vaguely
analogous to that of the Hirpi. In Icelandic sagas,
in the Relations of the old Jesuit missionaries, in the
Travels of Pallas and Goielin, we hear of medicine-
men and Berserks who take liberties with red-hot
metal, live coals, and burning wood. Thus in the
Icelandic Flatey Book (vol. i. p. 425) we read about
the fighting evangelist of Iceland, a story of Thahg-
brandr and the foreign Berserkir. ' The Berserkir
said : "I can walk through the burning fire with
my bare feet." Then a great fire was made, which
Thangbrandr hallowed, and the Berserkir went into it
without fear, and burned his feet' — the Christian
spell of Thangbrandr being stronger than the heathen
spell of the Berserkir. What the saga says is not
evidence, and some of the other tales are merely
traditional. Others may be explained, perhaps, by
conjuring. The mediaeval ordeal by fire may also
be left on one side. In 1826 Lockhart published a
translation of the Church Service for the Ordeal by
Fire, a document given, he says, by Biisching in
Die Vorzeit for 1817. The accused communicates
before carrying the red-hot iron bar, or walking on the
red-hot ploughshare. The consecrated wafer is sup-
posed to preserve him from injury, if he be guiltless.

xn] THE FIRE-WALK 1 53

He carries the iron for nine yards, after which his
hands are sealed up in a linen cloth and examined
at the end of three days. ' If he be found clear of
scorch or scar, glory to God.' Lockhart calls the
service ' one of the most extraordinary records of the
craft, the audacity, and the weakness of mankind.' ^

The fraud is more likely to have lain in the pre-
tended failure to find scorch or scar than in any
method of substituting cold for hot iron, or of pre-
venting the metal from injuring the subject of the
ordeal. The rite did not long satisfy the theologians
and jurists of the Middle Ages. It has been dis-
cussed by Lingard in his History of England, and
by Dr. E. B. Tylor in Primitive Culture.

For the purpose of the present inquiry I also
omit all the rites of leaping sportfully, and of driving
cattle through light fires. Of these cases, from the
Eoman Palilia, or Parilia, downwards, there is a
useful collection in Brand's Popular Antiquities
under the heading ' Midsummer Eve.' One exception
must be made for a passage from Torreblanca's
Demonologia (p. 106). People are said ' pyras
circumire et transilire in futuri mali averruncatione '
— to ' go round about and leap over lighted p^Tes
for the purpose of averting future evils,' as in Mann-
hardt's theory of the Hirpi. This may be connected
with the Bulgarian rite, to be described later, but, as
a rule, in aU these instances, the fire is a light one of
straw, and no sort of immunity is claimed by the
people who do not walk through, but leap across it.

These kinds of analogous examples, then, it suf-
fices merely to mention. For the others, in all aflairs
of this sort, the w^de diffusion of a tale of miracle is

^ Janus, pp. 44-49.

154 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xn

easily explained. The fancy craves for miracles, and
the universal mode of inventing a miracle is to deny
the working, on a given occasion, of a law of Nature.
Gravitation was suspended, men floated in air, in-
animate bodies became agile, or fire did not burn.
No less natural than the invention of the myth is the
attempt to feign it by conjuring or by the use of
some natural secret. But in the following modern
instances the miracle of passing through the fire un-
injured is apparently feigned with considerable skill,
or is performed by the aid of some secret of Nature
not known to modern chemistry. The evidence is
decidedly good enough to prove that in Europe,
India, and Polynesia the ancient rite of the Hirpi
of Soracte is still a part of religious or customary
ceremony.

Fijian Fire-walk

The case which originally drew my attention to
this topic is that given by Mr. Basil Thomson in his
South Sea Yarns (p. 195). Mr. Thomson informs
me that he wrote his description on the day after he
witnessed the ceremony, a precaution which left no
room for illusions of memory. Of course, in describ-
ing a conjuring trick, one who is not an expert re-
cords, not what actually occurred, but what he was
able to see, and the chances are that he did not see,
and therefore omits, an essential circumstance, while
he misstates other circumstances, I am informed
by Mrs. Steel, the author of The Potters Thumb and
other stories of Indian life, that, in watching an
Indian conjurer, she generally, or frequently, detects
his method. She says that the conjurer often begins
by whirling rapidly before the eyes of the spectators

xii] THE FIRE- WALK 1 55

a small polished skull of a monkey, and she is in-
clined to think that the spectators who look at this
are, in some way, more easily deluded. These facts
are mentioned that I may not seem unaware of what
can be said to impugn the accuracy of the descrip-
tions of the Fire Eite, as given by Mr. Thomson and
other witnesses.

Mr. Thomson says that the Wesleyan missionaries
have nearly made a clean sweep of all heathen cere-
monial in Fiji. ' But in one corner of Fiji, the island
of N~bengga, a curious observance of mythological
origin has escaped the general destruction, probably
because the worthy iconoclasts had never heard of
it.' The myth tells how the ancestor of the clan
received the gift of fire-walking from a god, and the
existence of the myth raises a presumption in favour
of the antiquity of the observance.

' Once every year the masdwe, a dracsena that
grows in profusion on the grassy hillsides of the
island, becomes fit to yield the sugar of which its
fibrous root is full. To render it fit to eat, the roots
must be baked among hot stones for four days. A
great pit is dug, and filled with large stones and
blazing logs, and when these have burned down, and
the stones are at white heat, the oven is ready for
the masdwe. It is at this stage that the clan Na
Ivilankata, favoured of the gods, is called on to
" leap into the oven " [rikata na lovo), and walk un-
harmed upon the hot stones that would scorch and
wither the feet of any but the descendants of the
dauntless Tui Nkualita. Twice only had Europeans
been fortunate enough to see the masdwe cooked, and
so marvellous had been the tales they told, and so
cynical the scepticism with which they had been

156 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

received, that nothing short of another performance
before witnesses and the photographic camera would
have satisfied the average " old hand."

' As we steamed up to the chiefs village of
Waisoma, a cloud of blue smoke rolling up among
the palms told us that the fire was newly lighted.
We found a shallow pit, nineteen feet wide, dug in
the sandy soil, a stone's throw from high-water mark,
in a small clearing among the cocoanuts between the
beach and the dense forest. The pit was piled high
with great blazing logs and round stones the size of a
man's head. Mingled with the crackling roar of the
fire were loud reports as splinters flew off from the
stones, warning us to guard our eyes. A number of
men were dragging up more logs and rolling them
into the blaze, while, above all, on the very brink
of the fiery pit, stood Jonathan Dambea, directing
the proceedings with an air of noble calm. As the
stones would not be hot enough for four hours, there
was ample time to hear the tradition that warrants
the observance of the strange ceremony we were to
see.

' When we were at last summoned, the fire had
been burning for more than four hours. The pit was
filled with a white-hot mass shooting out little
tono'ues of white flame, and throwino^ out a heat
beside which the scorching sun was a pleasant relief.
A number of men were engaged, with long poles to
which a loop of thick vine had been attached, in
noosing the pieces of unburnt wood by twisting the
pole, like a horse's twitch, until the loop was tight,
and dragging the log out by main force. When the
wood was all out there remained a conical pile of
glowing stones in the middle of the pit. Ten men
now drove the butts of green saplings into the base of
the pile, and held the upper end while a stout vine

xii] THE FIRE- WALK I 57

was passe'd behind tlie row of saplings. A dozen
men grasped each end of the vine, and with loud
shouts hauled with all their might. The saplings,
like the teeth of an enormous rake, tore through the
pile of stones, flattening them out towards the oppo-
site edge of the pit. The saplings were then driven
in on the other side and the stones raked in the
opposite direction, then sideways, until the bottom of
the pit was covered with an even layer of hot stones.
This process had taken fully half an hour, but any
doubt as to the heat of the stones at the end was set
at rest by the tongues of flame that played con-
tinually among them. The cameras were hard at
work, and a large crowd of people pressed inwards
towards the pit as the moment drew near. They
were all excited except Jonathan, who preserved,
even in the supreme moment, the air of holy calm
that never leaves his face. All eyes are fixed ex-
pectant on the dense bush behind the clearing,
whence the Shadrachs, Meshachs and Abednegos of
the Pacific are to emerge. There is a cry of " Vutu!
Vutu ! " and forth from the bush, two and two, march
fifteen men, dressed in garlands and fringes. They
tramp straight to the brink of the pit. The leading
pair show something like fear in their faces, but do
not pause, perhaps because the rest would force them
to move forward. They step down upon the stones
and continue their march round the pit, planting
their feet squarely and firmly on each stone. The
cameras snap, the crowd surges forward, the by-
standers fling in great bundles of green leaves. But
the bundles strike the last man of the procession and
cut him ofi* from his fellows ; so he stays where he is,
trampling down the leaves as they are thrown to line
the pit, in a dense cloud of steam from the boiling
sap. The rest leap back to his assistance, shoutinfy

158 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

and trampling, and the pit turns into the mouth of
an Inferno, filled with dusky frenzied fiends, half seen
through the dense volume that rolls up to heaven
and darkens the sunlight. After the leaves, palm-
leaf baskets of the drac^na root are flung to them,
more leaves, and then bystanders and every one join
in shovelling earth over all till the pit is gone, and a
smoking mound of fresh earth takes its place. This
will keep hot for four days, and then the masdwe will
be cooked.

' As the procession had filed up to the pit, by a
preconcerted arrangement with the noble Jonathan,
a large stone had been hooked out of the pit to the
feet of one of the party, who poised a pocket-hand-
kerchief over it, and dropped it lightly upon the
stone when the first man leapt into the oven, and
snatched what remained of it up as the last left the
stones. During the fifteen or twenty seconds it lay
there every fold that touched the stone was charred,
and the rest of it scorched yellow. So the stones
were not cool. We caught four or five of the per-
formers as they came out, and closely examined their
feet. They were cool, and showed no trace of
scorching, nor were their anklets of dried tree-fern
leaf burnt. This, Jonathan explained, is part of the
miracle ; for dried tree-fern is as combustible as
tinder, and there were flames shooting out among the
stones. Sceptics had affirmed that the skin of a
Fijian's foot being a quarter of an inch thick, he
would not feel a burn. Whethei- this be true or not
of the ball and heel, the instep is covered with skin
no thicker than our own, and we saw the men plant
their insteps fairly on the stone.'

Mr. Thomson's friend, Jonathan, said that young
men had been selected because they would look

xii] THE FIRE-WALK 1 59

"better in a photograph, and, being inexperienced,
they were afraid. A stranger would share the gift if
he went in with one of the tribe. Some years ago a
man fell and burned his shoulders. ' Any trick ? '
' Here Jonathan's ample face shrunk smaller, and a
shadow passed over his candid eye.' Mr. Thomson
concludes : ' Perhaps the Na Ivilankata clan have no
secret, and there is nothing wonderful in their per-
formance ; but, miracle or not, I am very glad I saw
it.' The handkerchief dropped on the stone is ' alive
to testify to it.' Mr. Thomson's photograph of the
scene is ill-developed, and the fumes of steam some-
what interfere with the effect. A rough copy is
published in Folk-Lore for September, 1895, but the
piece could only be reproduced by a delicate drawing
with the brush.

The parallel to the rite of the Hirpi is complete,
except that red-hot stones, not the pyre of pine-
embers, is used in Fiji. Mr. Thomson has heard of
a similar ceremony in the Cook group of islands.
As in ancient Italy, so in Fiji, a certain clan have the
privilege of fire- walking. It is far enough from Fiji
to Southern India, as it is far enough from Mount
Soracte to Fiji. But in Southern India the Klings
practise the rite of the Hirpi and the Na Ivilankata.
I give my informant's letter exactly as it reached me,
though it has been published before in Longmans
Magazine :

Kling Fire-walk

' Deae Sir, — Observing from your note in Long-
man's Magazine that you have mislaid my notes re
fire-walking, I herewith repeat them. I have more
than once seen it done by the " Klings," as the low-

l6o MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

caste Tamil-speaking Hindus from Malabar are called,
in the Straits Settlements. On one occasion I was
present at a " fire- walking " held in a large tapioca
plantation in Province Wellesley, before many hun-
dreds of spectators, all the Hindu coolies from the
surrounding estates being mustered. A trench had
been dug about twenty yards long by six feet wide
and two deep. This was piled with faggots and
small wood four or five feet high. This was lighted
at midday, and by four p.m. the trench was a bed of
red-hot ashes, the heat from which was so intense
that the men who raked and levelled it with long
poles could not stand it for more than a minute at a
time. A few yards from the end of the trench a
large hole had been dug and filled with water. Wlien
all was ready, six men, ordinary coolies, dressed only
in their " dholis," or loin-cloths, stepped out of the
crowd, and, amidst tremendous excitement and a
horrible noise of conches and drums, passed over the
burning trench from end to end, in single file, at a
quick walk, plunging one after the other into the
water. Not one of them showed the least sign of
injury. They had undergone some course of pre-
paration by their priest, not a Brahman, but some
kind of devil-doctor or medicine-man, and, as I
understood it, they took on themselves and expiated
the sins of the Kling community for the past year
(a big job, if thieving and lying count ; probably not).
They are not, however, always so lucky, for I heard
that on the next occasion one of the men fell and was
terribly burnt, thus destroying the whole effect of the
ceremony. I do not think this to be any part of the
Brahmanical religion, though the ordeal by fire as a
test of guilt is, or was, in use all over India. The
fact is that the races of Southern India, where the
Aryan element is very small, have kept all their

xii] ■ THE FIRE- WALK l6l

savage customs and devil-worship under the form of
Brahmanism.

' Another curious feat I saw performed at Labuan
Deli, in Sumatra, on the Chinese New Year. A
Chinaman of the coolie class was squatted stark
naked on the roadside, holding on his knees a brass
pan the size of a wash-hand basin, piled a foot high
with red-hot charcoal. The heat reached one's face
at two yards, but if it had been a tray of ices the
man couldn't have been more unconcerned. There
was a crowd of Chinese round him, all eagerly asking
questions, and a pile of coppers accumulating beside
him. A Chinese shopkeeper told me that the man
" told fortunes," but from the circumstance of a
gambling-house being close by, I concluded that his
customers were getting tips on a system.

' Hoping these notes may be of service to you,
' I remain,

' Yours truly,

' Stephen Pondek.'

In this rite the fire-pit is thrice as long (at a
rough estimate) as that of the Fijians. The fire is of
wooden embers, not heated stones. As in Fiji, a
man who falls is burned, clearly suggesting that the
feet and legs, but not the ivhole body, are in some way
prepared to resist the fire. As we shall find to be
the practice in Bulgaria, the celebrants place their
feet afterwards in water. As in Bulgaria, drums are
beaten to stimulate the fire-walkers. Neither here
nor in Fiji are the performers said to be entranced,
like the Bulgarian Nistinares} On the whole, the
Kling rite (which the Klings, I am informed, also

^ Home, the medium, was, or affected to be, entranced in his fire
tricks, as was Bernadette, at Loiirdes, in the Miracle clu Cicrge.

1 62 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

practise in the islands whither they are carried as
coohes) so closely resembles the Fijian and the Ton-
gan that one would explain the hkeness by trans-
mission, were the ceremony not almost as like the
rite of the Hirpi. For the Tongan fire-ritual, the
source is The Polynesian Society's Journal, vol. ii.
No. 2, pp. 105-108. My attention was drawn to this
by Mr. Laing, writing from New Zealand. The
article is by Miss Tenira Henry, of Honolulu, a
young lady of the island. The Council of the Society,
not having seen the rite, ' do not guarantee the truth
of the story, but willingly publish it for the sake of
the incantation.' Miss Henry begins with a descrip-
tion of the ^z'-plant [Draccena terminalis), which ' re-
qiiires to be well baked before being eaten.'
She proceeds thus :

' The ^i-ovens are frequently thirty feet in dia-
meter, and the large stones, heaped upon small logs of
wood, take about twenty-four hours to get properly
heated. Then they are flattened down, by means of
long green poles, and the trunks of a few banana-
trees are stripped up and strewn over them to cause
steam. The ^i-roots are then thrown in whole, ac-
companied by short pieces of ape-root {Arum costa-
tum), that are not quite so thick as the ti, but grow
to the length of six feet and more. The oven is then
covered over with large leaves and soil, and left so
for about three days, when the ti and the ape are
taken out well cooked, and of a rich, light-brown
colour. The ape prevents the ti from getting too dry
in the oven.

' There is a strange ceremony connected with the
Uum Ti (or ti-oven), that used to be practised by the
heathen priests at Eaiatea, but can now be performed

Ill] THE FIRE-WALK 1 6

by only two individuals (Tupua and Taero), both
descendants of priests. This ceremony consisted in
causing people to walk in procession through the
hot oven when flattened down, before anything had
been placed in it, and without any preparation what-
ever, bare-footed or shod, and on their emergence
not even smelling of fire. The manner of doino^ this
was told by Tupua, who heads the procession in the
picture, to Monsieur Morne, Lieutenant de Vaisseau,
who also took the photograph ^ of it, about two years
ago, at Uturoa, Eaiatea, which, being on bad paper,
was copied ofi* by Mr. Barnfield, of Honolulu. All
the white residents of the place, as well as the French
officers, were present to see the ceremony, which is
rarely performed nowadays.

' No one has yet been able to solve the mystery
of this surprising feat, but it is to be hoped that
scientists will endeavour to do so while those men
who practise it still live.

Tupua's Incantation used in Walking Over the
Uum-Ti. — Translation

' Hold the leaves of the ^'f-plant before picking
them, and say : "0 hosts of gods ! awake, arise '
You and I are going to the ti-oven to-morrow."

' If they float in the air, they are gods, but if
their feet touch the ground they are human beings
Then break the ^2-leaves ofi* and look towards the
direction of the oven, and say : "0 hosts of gods !
go to-night, and to-morrow you and I shall go."
Then wrap the ^z-leaves up in han {Hibiscus) leaves,
and put them to sleep in the marae, where they must
remain until morning, and say in leaving :

^ The photograph referred to is evidently taken from a sketch by
hand, and is not therefore a photograph from life. — Editor. The
original photograph was hereon sent to the editor and acknowledged
by him. — A. L.

1 64 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xn

' " Arise ! awake ! 0 hosts of gods ! Let your
feet take you to the ^z'-oven ; fresh water and salt
water come also. Let the dark earth-worm and the
light earth-worm go to the oven. Let the redness
and the shades of fire all go. You will go ; you will
go to-night, and to-morrow it will be you and I ; we
shall go to the Uum-Ti." (This is for the night.)

' Wlien the ^i-leaves are brought away, they must
be tied up in a wand and carried straight to the
oven, and opened when all are ready to pass through ;
then hold the wand forward and say :

' " 0 men (spirits) who heated the oven ! let
it die out ! 0 dark earth-worms ! 0 light earth-
worms ! fresh water and salt water, heat of the oven
and redness of the oven, hold up the footsteps of the
walkers, and fan the heat of the bed. 0 cold beings,
let us lie in the midst of the oven ! 0 Great-Woman-
who-set-fire-to-the-skies ! hold the fan, and let us go
into the oven for a little while ! " Then, when all are
ready to walk in, we say :

" Holder of the first footstep !
Holder of the second footstep !
Holder of the third footstep !
Holder of the fourth footstep !
Holder of the fifth footstep !
Holder of the sixth footstep !
Holder of the seventh footstep !
Holder of the eighth footstep !
Holder of the ninth footstep !
Holder of the tenth footstep !
" 0 Great- Woman-who-set-fire-to-the-skies ! all is covered ! "

' Then everybody walks through without hurt,
into the middle and around the oven, following the
leader, with the wand beating from side to side.

' The Great- Woman-who-set-fire-to-the-skies was a
high-born woman in olden times, who made herself
respected by the oppressive men when they placed

xii] THE FIRE- WALK 1 65

women under so many restrictions. She is said, to
have had the hghtning at her command, and struck
men with it when they encroached on her rights.

' All the above is expressed in old Tahitian, and
when quickly spoken is not easily understood by the
modern listener. Many of the words, though found
in the dictionary, are now obsolete, and the arrange-
ment of others is changed. Oe and tana are never
used now in place of the plural outou and tatou ; but
in old folk-lore it is the classical style of addressing
the gods in the collective sense. Tahutahu means
sorcery, and also to kindle a fire.'

So far Miss Henry, on this occasion, and the
archaic nature of the hymn, with the reference to a
mythical leader of the revolt of women, deserves the
attention of anthropologists, apart from the singular
character of the rite described. In the third number
of the Journal (vol. ii.) the following editorial note is
published :

' Miss Tenira Henry authorises us to say that her
sister and her sister's little child were some of those
who joined in the Uum-Ti ceremony referred to in
vol. ii. p. 108, and in the preceding note, and actually
walked over the red-hot stones. The illustration of
the performance given in the last number of the
Journal, it appears, is actually from a photograph
taken by Lieutenant Morne, the original of which
Miss Henry has sent us for inspection. — Editor.'

Corroborative Evidence

The following corroborative account is given in
the Journal, from a source vaguely described as ' a
pamphlet published in San Francisco, by Mr. Hast-
well: '

1 66 MODEEN MYTHOLOGY [xii

' The natives of Eaiatea have some performances
so entirely out of the ordinary course of events as to
institute (sic) inquiry relative to a proper solution.

' On September 20, 1885, 1 witnessed the wonder-
ful, and to me inexplicable, performance of passing
through the " fiery furnace."

' The furnace that I saw was an excavation of
three or four feet in the ground, in a circular form
(sloping upwards), and about thirty feet across. The
excavation was filled with logs and wood, and then
covered with large stones. A fire was built under-
neath, and kept burning for a day. When I witnessed
it, on the second day, the flames were pouring up
through the interstices of the rocks, which were
heated to a red and white heat. When everything
was in readiness, and the furnace still pouring out
its intense heat, the natives marched up with bare
feet to the edge of the furnace, where they halted for
a moment, and after a few passes of the wand made
of the branches of the ^i-plant by the leader, who
repeated a few words in the native language, they
stepped down on the rocks and walked leisurely
across to the other side, stepping from stone to stone.
This was repeated five times, without any preparation
whatever on their feet, and without injury or discom-
fort from the heated stones. There was not even the
smell of fire on their garments.'

Mr. N. J. Tone, in the same periodical (ii. 3, 193),
says that he arrived just too late to see the same rite
at Bukit Mestajam, in Province Wellesley, Straits
Settlements ; he did see the pit and the fire, and
examined the naked feet, quite uninjured, of the
performers. He publishes an extract to this effect
from his diary. The performers, I believe, were
Klings. Nothing is said to indicate any condition of
trance, or other abnormal state, in the fire-walkers.

xii] THE FIRE- WALK 1 67

The Fire-walk in Trinidad.
Mr. Henry R. St. Clair, writing on September 14.
1896, says: 'In Trinidad, British West Indies, the
rite is performed annually about this time of the
3^ear among the Indian coolie immigrants resident in
the small village of Peru, a mile or so from Port of
Spain. I have personally witnessed the passing, and
the description given by Mr. Ponder tallies with what
I saw, except that, so far as I can remember, the
number of those who took part in the rite was greater
than six. In addition, there is this circumstance,
which was not mentioned by that gentleman : each
of the " passers " carried one or two lemons, which
they dropped into the fire as they went along. These
lemons were afterwards eagerly scrambled for by the
bystanders, who, so far as I can recollect, attributed
a healing influence to them.'

Bulgarian Fire -walk

As to the Bulgarian rite. Dr. Schischmanof writes
to me :

' I am sure the observance will surprise you ; I
am even afraid that you will think it rather fantastic,
but you may rely on my information. The danse de
feu was described long ago in a Bulgarian periodical
by one of our best known writers. Wliat you are
about to read only confirms his account. What I
send you is from the Recueil de Folk Lore, de Littera-
ture et de Science (vol. vi. p. 224), edited, with my aid
and that of my colleague, Mastov, by the Minister
of Public Instruction. How will you explain these
hauts faits de Vextase religieuse ? I cannot imagine !
For my part, I think of the self-mutilations and

1 68 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

tortures of Dervishes and Fakirs, and wonder if we
have not here something analogous.'

The article in the Bulgarian serial is called ' The
Nistinares.' The word is not Bulgarian ; possibly it
is Eomaic.

The scene is in certain villages in Turkey, on the
Bulgarian frontier, and not far from the town of
Bourgas, on the Euxine, in the department of Lozen
Grad. The ministrants {Nistinares) have the gift of
fire-walking as a hereditary talent ; they are specially
just, and the gift is attributed as to a god in Fiji, in
Bulgaria to St. Constantine and St. Helena.

' These just ones feel a desire to dance in the
flames during the month of May ; they are filled at
the same time with some unknown force, which
enables them to predict the future. The best N.isti-
nare is he who can dance longest in the hve flame,
and utter the most truthful prophecies.'

The Nistinares may be of either sex.

On May 1 the Nistinares hold a kind of religious
festival at the house of one of their number. Salu-
tations are exchanged, and presents of food and raki
are made to the chief Nistinare. The holy icones of
saints are wreathed with flowers, and perfumed with
incense. Arrangements are made for purifying the
holy wells and springs.

On May 21, the day of St. Helena and St. Con-
stantine, the parish priest says Mass in the grey of
dawn. At sunrise all the village meets in festal
array ; the youngest Nistinare brings from the church
the icones of the two saints, and drums are carried
behind them in procession. They reach the sacred
well in the wood, which the priest blesses. This is

xn] THE FIRE-WALK 1 69

parallel to the priestly benediction on ' Fountain
Sunday' of the well beneath the Fairy Tree at
Domremy, where Jeanne d'Arc was accused of meet-
ing the Good Ladies.^ Everyone drinks of the water,
and there is a sacrifice of rams, ewes, and oxen, A
festival follows, as was the use of Domremy in the
days of the Maid ; then all return to the village.
The holy drum, which hangs all the year before
St. Helena in the church, is played upon. A mock
combat between the icones which have visited the
various holy wells is held.

Meanwhile, in each village, pyres of dry wood,
amounting to thirty, fifty, or even a hundred cart-
loads, have been piled up. The wood is set on fire
before the procession goes forth to the hallowing of
the fountains. On returning, the crowd dances a
horo (round dance) about the glowing logs. Heaps
of embers {Pineus acervus) are made, and water is
thrown on the ground. The musicians play the
tune called ' L'Air Nistinar.' A Nistinare breaks
through the dance, turns blue, trembles like a leaf, and
glares wildly with his eyes. The dance ends, and
everybody goes to the best point of view. Then
the wildest Nistinare seizes the icon, turns it to the
crowd, and with naked feet climbs the pyre of glow-
ing embers. The music plays, and the Nistinare
dances to the tune in the fire. If he is so disposed he
utters prophecies. He dances till his face resumes
its ordinary expression ; then he begins to feel the
burning ; he leaves the pyre, and places his feet in
the mud made by the libations of water already
described. The second Nistinare then dances in the
fire, and so on. The predictions apply to villages

' Proces, Quicherat, ii. 396. 897.

I/O MODERN MYTHOLOGY [sn

and persons ; sometimes sinners are denounced, or
repairs of the church are demanded in this queer
parish council. All through the month of May the
Nistinares call out for fire when they hear the Nisti-
nare music playing. They are very temperate men
and women. Except in May they do not clamour
for fire, and cannot dance in it.

In this remarkable case the alleged gift is heredi-
tary, is of saintly origin, and is only exercised when
the Nistinave is excited, and (apparently) entranced
by music and the dance, as is the manner also of
medicine-men among savages. The rite, with its
sacrifices of sheep and oxen, is manifestly of heathen
origin. They ' pass through the fire ' to St. Constan-
tine, but the observance must be far older than
Bulgarian Christianity. The report says nothing as
to the state of the feet of the Nistinares after the
fire-dance. Medical inspection is desirable, and the
photographic camera should be used to catch a picture
of the wild scene. My account is abridged from the
French version of the Bulgarian report sent by Dr.
Schischmanof.

Indian Fire-walk

Since these lines were written the kindness of
Mr. Tawney, librarian at the India Office, has added
to my stock of examples. Thus, Mr. Stokes printed
in the Indian Antiquary (ii. p. 190) notes of evidence
taken at an inquest on a boy of fourteen, who fell
during the fire-walk, was burned, and died on that
day. The rite had been forbidden, but was secretly
practised in the village of Periyangridi. The fire-
pit was 27 feet long by 1\ feet broad and a span
in depth. Thirteen persons walked through the hot

xii] THE FIRE- WALK 171

wood embers, which, in Mr. Stokes's opinion (who
did not see the performance), ' would hardly injure
the tough skin of the sole of a labourer's foot,' yet
killed a boy. The treading was usually done by men
under vows, perhaps vows made during illness. One,
at least, walked ' because it is my duty as Pujari.'
Another says, ' I got down into the fire at the east
end, meditating on Draupati, walked through to the
west, and up the bank.' Draupati is a goddess, wife
of the Pandavas. Mr. Stokes reports that, according
to the incredulous, experienced fire-walkers smear
their feet with oil of the green frog. No report is
made as to the condition of their feet when they
emerge from the fire.

Another case occurs in Oppert's work. The
Original Inhabitants of India (p. 480). As usual, a
pit is dug, filled with faggots. Wlien these have
burned down ' a little,' and ' while the heat is still
unbearable in the neighbourhood of the ditch, those
persons who have made the vow .... walk ....
on the embers in the pit, without doing themselves
as a rule much harm.'

Again, in a case where butter is poured over the
embers to make a blaze, ' one of the tribal priests, in
a state of religious afflatus, walks through the fire.
It is said that the sacred fire is harmless, but some
admit that a certain preservative ointment is used
b}' the performers.' A chant used at Mirzapur (as
in Fiji) is cited. ^

In these examples the statements are rather
vague. No evidence is adduced as to the actual
efiect of the fire on the feet of the ministrants. We

* Introduction to Popular Religion and Folk-Lore in Northern
India, by W. Crookes, B.A., p. 10.

172 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xii

hear casually of ointments which protect the feet,
and of the thickness of the skins of the fire-walkers,
and of the unapproachable heat, but we have nothing
exact, no trace of scientific precision. The Govern-
ment ' puts down,' but does not really investigate the
rite.

Psychical Parallels
I now very briefly, and ' under all reserves,' allude
to the only modern parallel in our country with
which I am acquainted. We have seen that lambli-
chus includes insensibility to fire among the privi-
leges of Graeco-Egyptian 'mediums.'^ The same
gift was claimed by Daniel Dunglas Home, the noto-
rious American spiritualist. I am well aware that
as Eusapia Paladino was detected in giving a false
impression that her hands were held by her neigh-
bours in the dark, therefore, when Mr. Crookes
asserts that he saw Home handle fire in the light, his
testimony on this point can have no weight with a
logical public. Consequently it is not as evidence to
the fact that I cite Mr. Crookes, but for another
purpose. Mr. Crookes's remarks I heard, and I
can produce plenty of living witnesses to the same
experiences with D. D. Home :

' I several times saw the fire test, both at my own
and at other houses. On one occasion he called me
to him when he went to the fire, and told me to
watch carefully. He certainly put his hand in the
grate and handled the red-hot coals in a manner
which would have been impossible for me to have
imitated without being severely burnt. I once saw
him go to a bright wood fire, and, taking a large

^ lamblichns, Dc Mijst. iii. 4.

xii] THE FIRE-WALK 1 73

piece of red-hot charcoal, put it in the hollow of one
hand, and, covering it with the other, blow into the
extempore furnace till the coal was white hot, and
the flames licked round his fingers. No sign of
burning could be seen then or afterwards on his
hands.'

On these occasions Home was, or was understood
to be, ' entranced,' like the Bulgarian Nistinares.
Among other phenomena, the white handkerchief on
which Home laid a red-hot coal was not scorched,
nor, on analysis, did it show any signs of chemical
preparation. Home could also (like the Fijians)
communicate his alleged immunity to others present ;
for example, to Mr. S. C. Hall. But it burned and
marked a man I know. Home, entranced, and
handling a red-hot coal, passed it to a gentleman of
my acquaintance, whose hand still bears the scar of
the scorching endured in 1867. Immunity was not
ahvays secured by experimenters.

I only mention these circumstances because Mr.
Crookes has stated that he knows no chemical pre-
paration which would avert the ordinary action of
heat. Mr. Clodd (on the authority of Sir B. W.
Eichardson) has suggested diluted sulphuric acid (so
familiar to Klings, Hirpi, Tongans, and Fijians). But
Mr. Clodd produced no examples of successful or
unsuccessful experiment.^ The nescience of Mr.
Crookes may be taken to cover these valuable pro-
perties of diluted sulphuric acid, unless Mr. Clodd
succeeds in an experiment which, if made on his own
person, I would very willingly witness.

Merely for completeness, I mention Dr. Dozous's

1 Folk-Lore, September 1895.

174 MODERN MYTH0L0C4Y [xii

Statement,^ that he timed by his watch Bernadette,
the seer of Lourdes, while, for fifteen minutes, she,
in an ecstatic condition, held her hands in the flame
of a candle. He then examined her hands, which
were not scorched or in any way affected by the fire.
This is called, at Lourdes, the Miracle die Cierge.

Here ends my list of examples, in modern and
ancient times, of a rite which deserves, though it
probably will not receive, the attention of science.
The widely diffused religious character of the per-
formance will, perhaps, be admitted as demonstrated.
As to the method by which the results are attained,
whether by a chemical preparation, or by the in-
fluence of a certain mental condition, or by thickness
of skin, or whether all the witnesses fable with a
singular unanimity (shared by photographic cameras),
I am unable even to guess. On May 21, in Bulgaria,
a scientific observer might come to a conclusion. At
present I think it possible that the Jewish ' Passing
through the Fire ' may have been a harmless rite.

Conclusion as to Fire-walk
In all these cases, and others as to which I have
first-hand evidence, there are decided parallels to
the Eite of the Hirpi, and to Biblical and ecclesias-
tical miracles. • The savage examples are iHtes, and
appear intended to secure good results in food
supplies (Fiji), or general well-being, perhaps by
expiation for sins, as in the Attic Thargelia. The
Bulgarian rite also aims at propitiating general
good luck.

' Quoted by Dr. Boissarie in his book, Lourdes, p. 49, from a book
by Dr. Dozous, now rare. Thanks to information from Dr. Boissarie,
I have procured the book by Dr. Dozous, an eye-witness of the miracle,
and have verified the qiiotation.

xii] THE FIRE-WALK 1 75

Psychical Research

But how is the Fire- walk done? I'hat remains
a mystery, and perhaps no philologist, folk-lorist,
anthropologist, or physiologist, has seriously asked
the question. The inedicamentum of Varro, the green
frog fat of India, the diluted sulphuric acid of Mr.
Clodd, are guesses in the air, and Mr. Clodd has
made no experiment. The possibility of plunging
the hand, unhurt, in molten metal, is easily accounted
for, and is not to the point. In this difficulty
Psychical Eesearch registers, and no more, the
well-attested performances of D. D. Home (entranced,
like the Nistinares) ; the well observed and timed
Miracle du Cierge at Lourdes — Bernadette being in an
ecstatic condition ; the Biblical story of Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego in the fiery furnace ; the
researches of lamblichus ; the case of Madame
Shchapoff, carefully reported,^ and other examples.
There is no harm in collecting examples, and the
question remains, are all those rites, from those of
Virgil's Hirpi to Bulgaria of to-day, based on some
actual but obscure and scientifically neglected fact
in nature ? At all events, for the Soranus-Feronia rite
philology only supplies her competing etymologies,
folk-lore her modern rural parallels, anthropology
her savage examples, psychical research her ' cases '
at first-hand. Anthropology had neglected the col-
lection of these, perhaps because the Fire-walk is
' impossible.'

^ PredvestniM spiritizma za posleanie 250 lyet. A. M. Aksakoff,
St. Petersburg, 1895. See Mr. Leafs review, Proceedings S.P.B. xii.
329.

176 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

XIII
THE ORIGIN OF DEATH

Yama

This excursus on 'The Fire-walk' has been introduced,
as an occasion arose, less because of controversy
about a neglected theme than for the purpose of
giving something positive in a controversial treatise.
For the same reason I take advantage of Mr. Max
MUller's remarks on Yama, ' the first who died,' to
offer a set of notes on myths of the Origin of Death.
Yama, in our author's opinion, is ' the setting sun '
(i. 45 ; ii. 563). Agni (Fire) is ' the first who was
born ; ' as the other twin, Yama, he was also the first
who died (ii. 568). As ' the setting sun he was the
first instance of death.' Kuhn and others, judging
from a passage in the Atharva Veda (xviii. 3, 13), have,
however, inferred that Yama ' was really a human
being and the first of mortals.' He is described in
the Atharva as ' the gatherer of men, who died the
first of mortals, who went forward the first to that
world.' In the Atharva we read of ' reverence to
Yama, to Death, who first approached the precipice,
finding out the path for many.' ' The myth of Yama
is perfectly intelligible, if we trace its roots back to
the sun of evening ' (ii. 573). Mr. Max Mliller then
proposes on this head ' to consult the traditions of
real Naturvolker ' (savages). The Harvey Islanders

xiii] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 177

speak of dying as ' following the sun's track,' The
Maoris talk of ' going down with the sun ' (ii. 574).
No more is said here about savage myths of ' the first
who died.' I therefore offer some additions to the
two instances in which savages use a poetical phrase
connecting the sun's decline with man's death.

The Origin of Death
Civilised man in a scientific asre would never

invent a myth to account for ' God's great ordinance
of death.' He regards it as a fact, obvious and
necessarily universal ; but his own children have
not attained to his belief in death. The certainty
and universality of death do not enter into the
thouo-hts of our little ones.

For in the thought of immortaUty

Do children play about the flowery meads.

Now, there are still many childlike tribes of men
who practically disbelieve in death. To them death
is always a surprise and an accident — an unnecessary,
irrelevant intrusion on the living world. ' Natural
deaths are by many tribes regarded as supernatural,'
says Dr. Tylor. These tribes have no conception of
death as the inevitable, eventual obstruction and
cessation of the powers of the bodily machine ; the
stopping of the pulses and processes of life by vio-
lence or decay or disease. To persons who regard
Death thus, his intrusion into the world (for Death,
of course, is thought to be a person) stands in great
need of explanation. That explanation, as usual, is
given in m3'tlis.

178 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

Death regarded as Unnatural
But before stud^^ing these widely different myths,
let us first establish the fact that death really is
regarded as somethino- non-natural and intrusive.
The modern savage readily believes in and accounts
in a scientific way for violent deaths. The spear or
club breaks or crushes a hole in a man, and his soul
flies out. But the deaths he disbelieves in are natural
deaths. These he is obliged to explain as produced
by some supernatural cause, generally the action of
malevolent spirits impelled by witches. Thus the
savage holds that, violence apart and the action of
witches apart, man would even now be immortal.
' There are rude races of Australia and South
America,' writes Dr. Tylor,^ ' whose intense belief in
witchcraft has led them to declare that if men were
never bewitched, and never killed by violence, they
would never die at all. Like the Australians, the
Africans will inquire of their dead " what sorcerer
slew them by his wicked arts." ' ' The natives,' says
Sir George Grey, speaking of the Austrafians, ' do
not believe that there is such a thing as death from
natural causes.' On the death of an Australian
native from disease, a kind of magical coroner's in-
quest is held by the conjurers of the tribe, and
the direction in which the wizard lives who slew
the dead man is ascertained by the movements of
worms and insects. The process is described at
full length l^y Mr. Brough Smyth in his Aborigines
of Victoria (i. 98-102). Turning from Australia to
Hindustan, we find that the Puwarrees (according to
Heber's narrative) attribute all natural deaths to a

» Frim. Cult. i. 138.

xiii] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 1 79

supernatural cause — namely, witchcraft. That is, the
Puwarrees do not yet believe in the universality and
necessity of Death. He is an intruder brought by
magic arts into our living world. Again, in his
Ethnolofiy of Bengal (pp. 199, 200), Dalton tells us that
the Hos (an aboriginal non- Aryan race) are of the
same opinion as the Puwarrees. ' They hold that all
disease in men or animals is attributable to one of
two causes : the wrath of some evil spirit or the speU
of some witch or sorcerer. These superstitions are
common to all classes of the population of this j)ro-
vince.' In the New Hebrides disease and death are
caused, as Mr. Codrington found, by tamates, or
ghosts.^ In New Caledonia, according to Erskine,
death is the result of witchcraft practised by members
of a hostile tribe, for who would be so wicked as
to bewitch his fellow-tribesman ? The Andaman
Islanders attribute all natural deaths to the super-
natural influence of e rem chaugala, or to jurn-wiu,
two spirits of the jungle and the sea. The death is
avenged by the nearest relation of the deceased, who
shoots arrows at the invisible enemy. The negroes
of Central Africa entertain precisely similar ideas
about the non-naturalness of death. Mr. DufF Mac-
donald, in Africana, writes : ' Every man who dies
what we call a natural death is really killed by
witches.' It is a far cry from the Blantyre Mission
in Africa to the Eskimo of the frozen North ; but so
uniform is human nature in the lower races that the
Eskimo precisely agree, as far as theories of death
go, with the Africans, the aborigines of India, the
Andaman Islanders, the Australians, and the rest.

^ Journal of Antliroj), Institute, x. iii.

I So MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xui

Dr. Eink ^ found that ' sickness or death coming
about in an accidental manner was always attributed
to witchcraft, and it remains a question whether
death on the whole was not originally accounted for
as resulting from magic' Pere Paul le Jeune, writ-
ing from Quebec in 1637, says of the Red Men : ' Je
n'en voy mourir quasi aucun, qui ne pense estre ensor-
cele.'^ It is needless to show how these ideas survived
into civilisation. Bishop Jewell, denouncing witches
before Queen Ehzabeth, was, so far, mentally on
a level with the Eskimo and the Australian. The
familiar and voluminous records of trials for witch-
craft, whether at Salem or at Edinburgh, prove that
all abnormal and unwonted deaths and diseases, in
animals or in men, were explained by our ancestors
as the results of supernatural mischief.

It has been made plain (and the proof might be

enlarged to any extent) that the savage does not

regard death as ' God's great ordinance,' universal

and inevitable and natural. But, being curious and

inquisitive, he cannot help asking himself, ' How did

this terrible invader first enter a world where he now

appears so often ? ' This is, properly speaking, a

scientific question ; but the savage answers it, not

by collecting facts and generalising from them, but

by inventing a myth. That is his invariable habit.

Does he want to know why this tree has red berries,

why that animal has brown stripes; .why this bird

utters its peculiar cry, where fire came from, why a

constellation is grouped in one way or. another, why

his race of men differs from the whites — in all these,

and in all other intellectual perplexities, the savage

' Tales and TrndiHons of the Es'klmn,'Y\._A-l.
- Belations, 1637, p. 49.

3in] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH l8l

invents a story to solve the problem. Stories about
the Origin of Death are, therefore, among the
commonest fruits of the savage imagination. As
those legends have been produced to meet the same
want by persons in a very similar mental condition,
it inevitably follows that they all resemble each other
with considerable closeness. We need not conclude
that all the myths we are about to examine came
from a single original source, or were handed about
— with flint arrow-heads, seeds, shells, beads, and
weapons — in the course of savage commerce. Borrow-
ing of this sort ma}^ — or, rather, must — explain many
difficulties as to the diffusion of some myths. But
the myths with which we are concerned now, the
myths of the Origin of Death, might easily have
been separateh' developed by simple and ignorant
men seekingf to discover an answer to the same
problem.

Why Men are Mortal

The myths of the Origin of Death fall into a few
categories. In many legends of the lower races men
are said to have become subject to mortality because
they infringed some mystic prohibition or taboo of
the sort which is common among untutored peoples.
The apparently untrammelled Polynesian, or Austra-
lian, or African, is really the slave of countless
traditions, which forbid him to eat this object or to
touch tliat, or to speak to such and such a person,
or to utter this or that word. Eaces in this curious
state of ceremonial subjection often account for
death as the punishment imposed for breaking some
taboo. In other cases, death is said to have been
caused by a sin of omission, not of commission.

1 82 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

People who have a comphcated and minute ritual
(like so many of the lower races) persuade themselves
that Death burst on the world when some passage of
the ritual was first omitted, or when some custom
was first infringed. Yet again, Death is fabled to
have first claimed us for his victims in consequence
of the erroneous deliver}?^ of a favourable message
from some powerful supernatural being, or because
of the failure of some enterprise which would have
resulted in the overthrow of Death, or by virtue of a
pact or covenant between Death and the gods. Thus
it will be seen that death is often (though by no
means invariably) the penalty of infringing a com-
mand, or of indulging in a culpable curiosity. But
there are cases, as we shall see, in which death, as a
tolerably general law, follows on a mere accident.
Some one is accidentally killed, and this ' gives
Death a lead ' (as they say in the hunting-field) over
the fence which had hitherto severed him from the
world of living men. It is to be observed in this
connection that the first of men who died is usually
regarded as the discoverer of a hitherto ' unknown
country,' the land beyond the grave, to which all
future men must follow him. Bin dir Woor, among
the Australians, was the first man who suffered death,
and he (like Yama in the Vedic myth) became the
Columbus of the new world of the dead.

Savage Death-Myths

Let us now examine in detail a few of the savage
stories of the Origin of Death. That told by the
Australians may be regarded with suspicion, as a
refraction from a careless hearing of the narrative in

xiii] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 1 83

Genesis. The legend printed by Mr. Brough Smyth'
was told to Mr. Bulwer by ' a black fellow far from
sharp,' and this black fellow may conceivably have
distorted what his tribe had heard from a missionary.
This sort of refraction is not uncommon, and we
must always guard ourselves against being deceived
by a savage corruption of a Biblical narrative. Here
is the myth, such as it is : — ' The first created man
and woman were told ' (by whom we do not learn)
' not to go near a certain tree in which a bat lived.
The bat was not to be disturbed. One day, however,
the woman was gathering firewood, and she went
near the tree. The bat Hew away, and after that
came Death.' More evidently genuine is the follow-
ing legend of how Death ' got a lead ' into the
Australian world. ' The child of the first man was
wounded. If his parents could heal him, Death
would never enter the world. They failed. Death
came.' The wound in this legend was inflicted by
a supernatural being. Here Death acts on the prin-
ciple ce nest que le lyremier pas qui coiite, and the
premier jjas was made easy for him. We may con-
tinue to examine the stories which account for death
as the result of breaking a taboo. The Ningphos of
Bengal say they were originally immortal.- They
were forbidden to bathe in a certain pool of water.
Some one, greatly daring, bathed, and ever since
Ningphos have been subject to death. The infringe-
ment, not of a taboo, but of a custom, caused death
in one of the many Melanesian myths on this subject.
Men and women had been practically deathless
because they cast their old skins at certain intervals ;

^ Abor. of Victoria, i. 429. ^ Dalton, oj). cit.

J 84 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

but a grandmother had a favourite grandchild who
failed to recognise her when she appeared as a young
woman in her new skin. With fatal good-nature the
grandmother put on her old skin again, and instantly
men lost the art of skin-shifting, and Death finally
seized them.^

The Greek Myth
The Greek myth of the Origin of Death is the
most important of those which turn on the breaking
of a prohibition. The story has unfortunately become
greatly confused in the various poetical forms which
have reached us. As far as can be ascertained,
death was regarded in one early Greek myth as the
punishment of indulgence in forbidden curiosity.
Men appear to have been free from death before the
quarrel between Zeus and Prometheus. In conse-
quence of this quarrel Hephsestus fashioned a woman
out of earth and water, and gave her to Epimetheus,
the brother of the Titan. Prometheus had forbidden
his brother to accept any gift from the gods, but the
bride was welcomed nevertheless. She brought her
tabooed coffer : this was opened ; and men — who,
according to Hesiod, had hitherto lived exempt from
* maladies that bring down Fate ' — were overwhelmed
with the ' diseases that stalk abroad by night and
day.' Now, in Hesiod {Worh and Days, 70-100)
there is nothing said about unholy curiosity.
Pandora simpl}^ opened her casket and scattered its
fatal contents. But Philodemus assures us that,
according to a variant of the myth, it was Epimetheus
who opened the forbidden coffer, whence came
Death.

^ Codrington, Journal Anthro2]. Instihite, x. iii. For America,
compare Relations de la Noitvelle France, 1674, p. 13.

xiii] THE OKIUIN OF DEATH 1 85

Leaving the myths which turn on the breaking
of a taboo, and reserving for consideration the New
Zealand stor}^ in which the Origin of Death is the
neglect of a ritual process, let us look at some
African myths of the Origin of Death. It is to be
observed that in these (as in all the myths of the
most backward races) many of the characters are not
gods, but animals.

The Bushman story lacks the beginning. The
mother of the little Hare was lying dead, but we do
not know how she came to die. The Moon then
struck the httle Hare on the lip, cutting it open, and
saying, ' Cry loudly, for your mother will not return,
as / do, but is quite dead.' In another version the
Moon promises that the old Hare shall return to life,
but the little Hare is sceptical, and is hit in the
mouth as before. The Hottentot myth makes the
Moon send the Hare to men with the message that
they will revive as he (the Moon) does. But the
Hare ' loses his memory as he runs ' (to quote the
Prench proverb, which may be based on a form of
this very tale), and the messenger brings the tidings
that men shall surely die and never revive. The
angry Moon then burns a hole in the Hare's mouth.
In yet another Hottentot version the Hare's failure
to deliver the messasfe correctlv caused the death of
the Moon's mother (Bleek, Bushman Folklore)} Com-
pare Sir James Alexander's Ea'peclitum, ii. 250, where
the Namaquas tell this tale. The Fijians say that
the Moon wished men to die and be born again, like

' The connection between the Moon and the Hare is also found in
Sanskrit, in ]\Iexican, in some of the South- Sea Islands, and in
German and Buddhist folklore. Probably what we call ' the ]\Ian
in the Moon ' seemed very like a hare to various races, roused their
curiosity, and provoked explanations in the shape of myths.

1 86 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiu

herself. The Eat said, ' No, let them die, like rats ; '
and they do.^

The Serpent
In this last variant we have death as the result
of a failure or transgression. Among the more back-
ward natives of South India (Le win's Wild Races of
South India) the serpent is concerned, in a suspicious
way, with the Origin of Death. The following legend
might so easily arise from a confused understanding
of the Mohammedan or Biblical narrative that it is
of little value for our purpose. At the same time,
even if it is only an adaptation, it shows the char-
acteristics of the adapting mind : — God had made the
w^orld, trees, and reptiles, and then set to work to
make man out of clay. A serpent came and devoured
the still inanimate ciay images while God slept.
The serpent still comes and bites us all, and the end
is death. If God never slept, there would be no
death. The snake carries us off while God is asleep.
But the oddest part of this myth remains. Not being-
able always to keep awake, God made a dog to drive
away the snake by barking. And that is why dogs
always howl when men are at the point of death.
Here we have our own rural superstition about howl-
ing dogs twisted into a South Indian myth of the
Origin of Death. The introduction of Death by a
pure accident recurs in a myth of Central Africa
reported by Mr. Duff Macdonald. There was a time
when the man blessed by Sancho Panza had not yet
' invented sleep.' A woman it was who came and
offered to instruct two men in the still novel art of
sleeping. ' She held the nostrils of one, and he

' Hahn, Tsu7ii-Goam, p. 150.

iiii] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 187

never awoke at all,' and since then the art of d}ing
has been facile.

Dualistie Myths
A not unnatural theor}^ of the Origin of Death is
illustrated by a myth from Pentecost Island and a
Eed Indian mj^th. In the legends of very many races
we find the attempt to account for the Origin of Death
and Evil by a simple dualistie myth. There were two
brothers who made things ; one made things well, the
other made them ill. In Pentecost Island it was Tagar
who made things well, and he appointed that men
should die for five days only, and live again. But
the malevolent Suque caused men ' to die right out.' ^
The Red Indian legend of the same character is
printed in the Annual Repoi't of the Bureau of Ethno-
logy (1879-80), p. 45. The younger of the Cin-au-av
brothers, who were wolves, said, ' When a man dies,
send him back in the morning and let all his friends
rejoice.' 'Not so,' said the elder; 'the dead shall
return no more.' So the younger brother slew the
child of the elder, and this was the beginning of
death.

Economic Myth
There is another and a very quaint myth of the
Origin of Death in Banks Island. At first, in Banks
Island, as elsewhere, men were immortal. The econo-
mical results were just what might have been ex-
pected. Property became concentrated in the hands
of the few — that is, of the first generations — while all
the younger people were practically paupers. To
heal the disastrous social malady, Qat (the maker of
things, who was more or less a spider) sent for Mate

^ Codrington, 0^. eit. p. 304.

1 88 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

— that is, Death. Death hved near a volcanic crater
of a monntain, where there is now a by-way into
Hades — or Panoi, as the Melanesians call it. Death
came, and w^ent through the empty forms of a funeral
feast for himself. Tangaro the Fool was sent to
watch Mate, and to see by what way he returned to
Hades, that men might avoid that path in future.
Inow when Mate fled to his own place, tliis great fool
Tangaro noticed the path, but forgot which it was,
and pointed it out to men under the impression that
it was the road to the upper, not to the wider, world.
Ever since that day men have been constrained to
follow Mate's path to Panoi and the dead.^ Another
myth is somewhat different, but, like this one, attri-
butes death to the imbecility of Tangaro the Fool.

Maui and Yama

The New Zealand myth of the Origin of Death
is pretty well known, as Dr. Tylor has seen in it the
remnants of a solar myth, and has given it a ' solar '
explanation. It is an audacious thing to differ from so
cautious and learned an anthropologist as Dr. Tylor,
but I venture to give my reasons for dissenting in
this case from the view of the author of Primitive
Culture (i. 335). Maui is the great hero of Maori
mythology. He was not precise^ a god, still less
was he one of the early elemental gods, yet we can
scarcely regard him as a man. He rather answers
to one of the race of Titans, and especially to Prome-
theus, the son of a Titan. Maui was prematurely
born, and his mother thought the child would be no
credit to her already numerous and promising family.

^ Codrington, op. cit.

nil] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 189

She therefore (as native women too often did in the
South-Sea Islands) tied him up in her long tresses
and tossed him out to sea. The gales brought him
back to shore : one of his grandparents carried him
home, and he became much the most illustrious and
successful of his household. So far Maui had the
luck which so commonly attends the youngest and
least-considered child in folklore and mythology.
This feature in his myth may be a result of the very
widespread custom of jiingsten Recht (Borough Eng-
lish), by which the youngest child is heir at least of
the family hearth. Now, unluckily, at the baptism
of Maui (for a pagan form of baptism is a Maori
ceremony) his father omitted some of the Karakias,
or ritual utterances proper to be used on such occa-
sions. This was the fatal original mistake whence
came man's liability to death, for hitherto men had
been immortal. So far, what is there ' solar ' about
Maui ? Who are the sun's brethren ? — and Maui had
many. How could the sun catch the sun in a snare,
and beat him so as to make him lame ? This was
one of Maui's feats, for he meant to prevent the sun
from running too fast through the sky. Maui brouoht
fire, indeed, from the under-world, as Prometheus
stole it from the upper-world ; but many men and
many beasts do as much as the myths of the world,
and it is hard to see how the exploit gives Maui
' a solar character.' Maui invented barbs for hooks,
and other appurtenances of early civilisation, with
which the sun has no more to do than with patent
safety-matches. His last feat was to attempt to secure
human immortality for ever. There are various
legends on this subject.

I go MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

Maui Myths
Some say Maui noticed that the sun and moon
rose again from their daily death, by virtue of a
fountain in Hades (Hine-nui-te-po) where they bathed.
Others say he wished to kill Hine-nui-te-po (conceived
of as a woman) and to carry off her heart. Wliat-
ever the reason, Maui was to be swallowed up in the
giant frame of Hades, or Night, and, if he escaped
alive, Death would never have power over men. He
made the desperate adventure, and would have suc-
ceeded but for the folly of one of the birds which
accompanied him. This little bird, which sings at
sunset, burst out laughing inopportunely, wakened
Hine-nui-te-po, and she crushed to death Maui and
all hopes of earthly immortality. Had he only come
forth alive, men would have been deathless. Now,
except that the bird which laughed sings at sunset,
what is there ' solar ' in all this ? The sun does daily
what Maid failed to do,^ passes through darkness and
death back into light and life. Not only does the
sun daily succeed where Maui failed, but it was his
observation of this fact which encouraged Maui to
risk the adventure. If Maui were the sun, we should
all be immortal, for Maui's ordeal is daily achieved
by the sun. But Dr. Tylor says : - ' It is seldom that
solar characteristics are more distinctly marked in
the several details of a myth than they are here.'
To us the characteristics seem to be precisely the
reverse of solar. Throughout the cycle of Maui
he is constantly set in direct opposition to the sun,
and the very point of the final legend is that what
the sun could do Maui could not. Literally the one

' Basticin, Heilirjc Sage, • Primitive Culture, i. 33G.

xili] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 191

common point between Maui and the sun is that the
little bird, the tiwakaicaht, which sings at the daily
death of day, sang at the eternal death of Maui.

Without pausing to consider the Tongan myth of
the Origin of Death, we may go on to investigate the
legends of the Aryan races. According to the Sata-
patha Brahmana, Death was made, like the gods and
other creatures, by a being named Prajapati. Now
of Prajapati, half was mortal, half was immortal.
With his mortal half he feared Death, and concealed
himself from Death in earth and water. Death said
to the gods, ' What hath become of him who created
us ? ' They answered, ' Fearing thee, hath he entered
the earth.' The gods and Prajapati now freed them-
selves from the dominion of Death by celebrating an
enormous numlDer of sacrifices. Death was chagrined
by their escape from the ' nets and clubs ' which he
carries in the Aitareya Brahmana. ' As you have
escaped me, so will men also escape,' he grumbled.
The gods appeased him by the promise that, in the
body, no man henceforth for ever should evade Death.
' Every one who is to become immortal shall do so by
first parting with his body.'

Yam a

Among the Aryans of India, as we have already
seen. Death has a protomartyr, Yama, ' the first of men
who reached the river, spying out a path for many.'
In spying the path Yama corresponds to Tangaro the
Fool, in the m3^th of the Solomon Islands. But Yama
is not regarded as a maleficent being, like Tangaro.
The Rig Veda (x. 14) speaks of him as 'King Yama,
who departed to the mighty streams and sought out
a road for manv ; ' and asfain, the Atharva Veda

192 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

names him ' the first of men who died, and the first
who departed to the celestial world.' With him the
Blessed Fathers dwell for ever in happiness. Mr.
Max MllUer, as we said, takes Yama to be ' a char-
acter suo-orested by the settins^ sun ' — a claim which is
also put forward, as we have seen, for the Maori hero
Maui. It is Yama, according to the Rig Veda, who
sends the birds — a pigeon is one of his messengers
(compare the White Bird of the Oxenharas) — as warn-
ings of approaching death. Among the Iranian race,
Yima appears to have been the counterpart of the
Vedic Yama. He is now King of the Blessed ; origin-
ally he was the first of men over whom Death won
his earliest victory.

Inferences
That Yama is mixed up with the sun, in the Rig
Veda, seems certain enough. Most phenomena, most
gods, shade into each other in the Vedic hymns.
But it is plain that the conception of a ' first man
who died ' is as common to many races as it is natural.
Death was regarded as unnatural, yet here it is among
us. How did it come? By somebody dying first,
and establishing a bad precedent. But need that
somebody have been originally the sun, as Mr. Max
Miiller and Dr. Tylor think in the cases of Yama and
Maui ? This is a point on which we may remain in
doubt, for death in itself was certain to challenge
inquiry among savage philosophers, and to be ex-
plained by a human rather than by a solar myth.
Human, too, rather than a result of ' disease of
language ' is, probably, the myth of the Fire-stealer.

xiii] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 1 93

The Stealing of Fire

The world-wide myth explaiiimg how man first
became possessed of fire — namely, by stealing it —
might well serve as a touchstone of the philological
and anthropological methods. To Mr. Max Mliller
the interest of the story will certainly consist in
discovering connections between Greek and Sanskrit
names of fire-gods and of fire bringing heroes. He
will not compare the fire-myths of other races all
over the world, nor will he even try to explain why
in almost all of these myths we find a thief of fire, a
Fire-stealer. This does not seem satisfactory to the
anthropologist, whose first curiosity is to know why
fire is everywhere said to have been obtained for
men by sly theft or ' flat burglary.' Of course it is
obvious that a myth found in Australia and America
cannot possibly be the result of disease of Aryan
languages not spoken in those two continents. The
myth of fire-stealing must necessarily have some
other origin.

' Fire Totems '
Mr. Max Mliller, after a treatise on Agni and
other fire-gods, consecrates two pages to ' Fire Totems.'
' If we are assured that there are some dark points
left, and that these might be illustrated and rendered
more intelligible by what are called fire totems
amon^j the Red Indians of North America, let us-
have as much light as we can get ' (ii. 804). Alas ! I
never heard of fire totems before. Probably some
one has been writing about them, somewhere, unless,
we owe them to Mr. Max Mliller's own researches.
Of course, he cites no authority for his fire totems.

194 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

* The lire totem, we are told, would thus naturally
have become the god of the Indians.' ' We are told '
— where, and by whom ? Not a hint is given on the
subject, so we must leave the doctrine of fire totems
to its mysterious discoverer. ' If others prefer to
call Prometheus a fire totem, no one would object,
if only it would help us to a better understanding
of Prometheus ' (ii. 810). Who are the ' others ' who
speak of a Greek ' culture-hero ' by the impossibly
fantastic name of ' a fire totem ' ?

Prometheus
Mr. Max Miiller ' follows Kuhn ' in his explana-
tion of Prometheus, the Fire-stealer, but he does not
follow him all the way. Kuhn tried to account for
the myth that Prometheus stole fire, and Mr. Max
MllUer does not try.^ Kuhn connects Prometheus
with the Sanskrit prammitha, the stick used in pro-
ducing fire by drilling a pointed into a flat piece
of wood. The Greeks, of course, made Prometheus
mean ' foresighted,' providens ; but let it be granted
that the Germans know better. Pramantha next is
associated with the verb mathnami, ' to rub or grind ; '
and that, again, with Greek iiavOdvoi, ' to learn.' We
too talk of a student as a ' grinder,' by a coincidence.
The root wanth likewise means ' to rob ; ' and we can
see in English how a fire-stick, a ' fire-rubber,' might
become a ' fire-robber,' a stealer of fire. A some-
what similar confusion in old Aryan languages
converted the fire-stick into a person, the thief of
fire, Prometheus ; while a Greek misunderstanding
gave to Prometheus {pramantha, ' fire-stick ') the

' Kiihn, Die Herablunft der Feuers unci dcr Odttertranlis, Berlin,
1859.

xiii] THE ORIGIN OF DEATH 195

meaning of ' foresighted,' with the word for prudent
foresight, irpoixiqO^ia. This, roughly stated, is the
view of Kuhn.^ Mr. Max Miiller conchides that
Prometheus, the producer of fire, is also the fire-god,
a representative of Agni, and necessarily ' of the
inevitable Dawn ' — ' of Agni as the deus matutinus,
a frequent character of the Vedic Agni, the Agni
aushasa, or the daybreak' (ii. 813).

But Mr. Max Miiller does not say one word about
Prometheus as the Fire-stealer. Now, that he stole
fire is of the essence of his myth ; and this myth of
the original procuring of fire by theft occurs all
over the world. As Australian and American savag-es
cannot conceivably have derived the myth of fire-
stealing from the root mantli and its double sense of
stealing and rubbing, there must be some other
explanation. But this fact could not occur to com-
parative mythologists who did not compare, probably
did not even know, similar myths wherever found.

Savage Myths of Fire- stealing

In La Mythologie (pp. 185-195) I have put
together a small collection of savage myths of the
theft of fire.- Our text is the line of Hesiod {Theo-
gony, 566), 'Prometheus stole the far-seen ray of
unwearied fire in a hollow stalk of fennel.' The
same stalk is still used in the Greek isles for carrying-
fire, as it was of old — whence no doubt this feature
of the myth.^ How did Prometheus steal fire ?

' HerxbJiunft, pp. 16, '24.

- Dupret, Paris, 1886. Translation bj' M. Parmentier.

'■'' Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiii. 22. ]3ent. Cijdades.

0 J

196 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiii

Some say from the altar of Zeus, others that he lit
his rod at the sun.' The Australians have the same
fable ; fire was obtained by a black fellow who
climbed by a rope to the sun. Again, in Australia
fire was the possession of two women alone. A man
induced them to turn their backs, and stole fire. A
very curious version of the myth occurs in an
excellent book by Mrs. Langloh Parker.- There was
no fire when Eootoolgar, the crane, married Gooner,
the kangaroo rat. Eootoolgar, idly rubbing two
sticks together, discovered the art of fire-making.
' This we will keep secret,' they said, ' from all the
tribes.' A fire-stick the}^ carried about in their
comehee. The tribes of the Bush discovered the
secret, and tlie fire-stick was stolen by Eeeargar, the
hawk. We shall be told, of course, that the hawk
is the lightning, or the Dawn. But in this savage
Jungle Book all the characters are animals, and
Eeeargar is no more the Dawn than is the kangaroo
rat. In savage myths animals, not men, play the
leading roles^ and the fire-stealing bird or beast
is found among many widely scattered races. In
Normandy the wren is the fire-bringer.^ A bird
brings fire in the Andaman Isles.^ Among the
Ahts a fish owned fire ; other beasts stole it. The
raven hero of the Thlinkeets, Yehl, stole fire. Among
the Cahrocs two old women possessed it, and it was
stolen by the coyote. Are these theftuous birds and

' Servius ad Virg., Ecloffue vi. 42.

'-' Australian Lcfjendar-y Tales. Nutt : London, 1897. Mrs. Parker
knows Australian dialects, and gives one story in the original. Her
tribes live on the Narran River, in New South Wales.

•" Piosqnet, La Normandie Merveilleiise. Paris, 1845.

' Jonnial A))tlirop. Instiiiite, November, 1884.

xm] THE_ORIGIN OF DEATH 197

beasts to be explained as Fire-gods ? Probably not.
Will any philologist aver that in Cahroc, Thlinkeet.
Australian, Andaman, and so fortli, the word for ' rub '
resembled the word for ' rob,' and so produced by ' a
disease of language ' the m3'th of the Fire-stealer ?

Origin of the Myth of Fire-stealing

The myth arose from the nature of savage ideas,
not from unconscious puns. Even in a race so
civilised as the Homeric Greeks, to make fire was no
easy task. Homer speaks of a man, in a lonely
upland hut, who carefully keeps the embers alive,
that he may not have to go far afield in search of
the seed of fire.^ Obviously he had no ready means
of striking a light. Suppose, then, that an early
savage loses his seed of fire. His nearest neighbours,
far enough ofi", may be hostile. If he wants fire, as
they will not give it, he must steal it, just as he must
steal a wife. People in this condition would readily
believe, like the Australian blacks, that the original
discoverers or possessors of a secret so valuable as fire
would not give it away, that others who wanted it
would be obhged to get it by theft. In Greece, in a civi-
lised race, this very natural old idea survives, though
fire is not the possession of a crane, or of an old
woman, but of the gods, and is stolen, not by a hawk
or a coyote, but by Prometheus, the culture-hero and
demiurge. Whether his name ' Foresighted ' is a
mistaken folk-etymology from the root manth, or not,
we have, in the ancient inevitable idea, that the
original patentees of fire would not willingly part
with their treasure, the obvious origin of the myth of

1 Odyssey, v. 488-493.

198 MODERN MYTHOLOGY [xiir

the Fire-stealer. And this theory does not leave the
analogous savage myths of fire-stealing unexplained
and out in the cold, as does the philological hypo-
thesis.^ In this last instance, as in others, the origin
of a world-wide myth is found, not in a ' disease of
language,' but in a form of thought still natural. If
a foreign power wants what answers among us to
the exclusive possession of lire, or wants the secret
of its rival's new explosive, it has to steal it.

^ References for savage myths of the Fire-stealer will be found — for
the Ahts, in-Sproat; for the tribes of the Pacific coast, in Bancroft ; for
Australians in Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria.

199

XIV

CONCLUSION

Here ends this ' Gentle and Joyous Passage of Arms.'
I showed, first, why anthropological students of
mythology, finding the philological school occupying
the OTOund, were obliged in Enoland to challenge
Mr. Max MuUer. I then discoursed of some incon-
veniences attending his method in controversy.
Next, I gave a practical example, the affair of Tuna
and Daphne. This led to a comparison of the philo-
logical and the anthropological ways of treating
the Daphne myth. The question of our allies then
coming up, I stated my reasons for regarding
Prof. Tiele ' rather as an ally than an adversary,' the
reason being his own statement. Presently, I replied
to Prof. Tide's criticism of my treatment of the
myth of Cronos. After a skirmish on Italian fields,
I gave my reasons for disagreeing with Mr. Max
Mliller's view of Mannhardt's position. His theory
of Demeter Erinnys was contrasted with that of
Mr. Max MuUer. Totemism occupied us next, and
the views of Mr. Max Muller and Mr. J. G. Frazer
were criticised. Then I defended anthropological
and criticised philological evidence. Our method of
universal comparison was next justified in the matter
of Fetishism. The Piddle Theory of Mr. Max MilUer
was presently discussed. Then followed a review
of our contending methods in the explanation of

200 M0D1:RN mythology [xiy

Artemis, of the Fire-walk, of Death Myths, and of the
Fire-stealer, Thus a number of points in mythological
interpretation have been tested on typical examples.

Much more might be said on a book of nearly 900
pages. Many points might be taken, much praise (were
mine worth anything) might be given ; but I have had
but one object, to defend the method of anthropology
from a running or dropping fire of criticism which
breaks out in many points all along the line, through
Contributions to the Science of Mythology. If my answer
be desultory and wandering, remember the sporadic
sharpshooting of the adversary ! For adversary we
must consider Mr. Max Mliller, so long as we use
different theories to different results. If I am right,
if he is wrong, in our attempts to untie this old
Gordian knot, he loses little indeed. That fame of
his, the most steady and brilliant light of all which
crown the brows of contemporary scholars, is the
well-earned reward, not of mythological lore nor of
cunning fence in controversy, but of wide learning
and exquisitely luminous style.

I trust that I have imputed no unfairness, made
no charge of conscious misrepresentation (to acci-
dents of exposition we are all liable), have struck no
foul blow, hazarded no discourteous phrase. If I
have done so, I am thereby, even more than in my
smattering of unscholarly learning, an opponent more
absolutely unworthy of the Eight Hon. Professor than
I would fain believe myself.

20I

APPENDIX A

The Fire-walk in Spain

One study occasionally illustrates another. In examining
the history of the Earl Marischal, who was exiled after the
rising of 1715, I found, in a letter of a correspondent of
d'Alembert, that the Earl met a form of the fire-walk in
Spain. There then existed in the Peninsula a hereditary
class of men who, by dint of ' charms ' permitted by the
Inquisition, could enter fire unharmed. The Earl Marischal
said that he would believe in their powers if he were allowed
first to light the fire, and then to look on. But the fire-
walkers would not gratify him, as not knowing what kind of
fire a heretic might kindle.

APPENDIX B

Mr. Macdonell on Vedic Mythology

Too late for use here came Vedic Mythology, from Grund-
riss der indo-arischen PhihA/xjie,^ by Mr. A. Macdonell, the
representative of the historic house of Lochgarry. This
even a non-scholar can perceive to be a most careful and
learned work. As to philological ' equations ' between names
of Greek and ^^edic gods, Mr. jMacdonell writes : ' Dyaus
= 7j£vs is the only one which can be said to be beyond the
range of doubt.' As to the connection of Prometheus with
Sanskrit Pramantha, he says : ' Tlpo^T]6svs has every appear-

' Triibner, Strasburg, 1897.

202 MODERN MYTHOLOGY

ance of being a purely Greek formation, while the Indian
verb math, to twirl, is found compounded only with ru's, never
with pra, to express the art of producing fire by friction.'
(See above, p. 194.) If Mr. Macdonell is right here, the
Greek myth of the fire-stealer cannot have arisen from ' a
disease of language.' But scholars must be left to reconcile
this last typical example of their ceaseless differences in the
matter of etymology of names.

INDEX

Abrahall, Mr. Hoskyns, 73

A~cacia, 60

Academy, 13 n.

'Ax, 106

Achelous, 106

Achilles, 1, 59, 106, 120

Adam, 124

Aditya, 65, 66

Adonis, 28

iElian, 81

Africa, native tribes of, their myths,
legends, and superstitions, 59,
60, 111, 114, 115, 119, 122, 123,
133, 151, 178, 179, 185

Agni, 19, 148, 176, 193, 195

Agni aushasa, 195

Ahana, 2, 29. 107

Ahts, 95, 196

Aia, 62

Aitareya Brahmana, 191

Aksakoff, A. M., 175n

Aladdin, 59

Alexander, Sir James, 185

Algonquins, 9, 106

America, tribes of, their myths
and superstitions, 71-73, 114,
115, 133, 178, 180, 189, 193, 195

Amnion, 76

Anapu, 61

Andaman Islanders, 97, 179, 196,
197

Anepou, 59-61

Animals in myth and religion.
See Bear, Bull, &c.

Ant, 80, 87

Anthephorus, 149

Anthropology and mythology, 78,
82 ; validity of its evidence in
mythology, 92 ; the witnesses,
92; a question of misrepresenta-

tion, 92-94; Mr. Max Mliller
and, 96- 100 ; the test of recur-
rences, 100, 101 ; bias of theory,
101, 102 ; concerning mission-
aries, 102, 103 ; the philological
method in : Mr. Max INIliller as
ethnologist, 104, 105 ; names of
savage gods, 105, 106 ; a Hot-
tentot God, 106, 107 ; causes of
scepticisui on the part of anthro-
pologists, 107, 108 ; phonetic
bickerings and rules, 108, 109 ;
basis of a science, 109 ; philology
in action: Indra, 110, 111 ; ob-
scuring the Veda, 111 ; and the
mysteries, 114, 115; fetishism
and, 116, 117

Anubis, 61

Apa-var-yan, or Apa-val-yan, 18, 19

Ape-root, 162

Apis, 60

ApoUo, 18, 19, 20, 57,68, 72, 80, 82,
106, 127, 133, 134, 143, 148,
149

Apollo Smintheus, 81

ATroXAajf, 18^J

Arcadia, gods, mvths and legends
of, 51-54, 65, '86, 87, 138, 139,
140, 144-147

Areas, 139, 140, 144 146

Arion, 51, 53

Aristotle, 81

Arkades, 74

"ApKT€fXLi, 147

"ApKToi, 74, 140, 141. 142, 145, 146 ;

cipKToi, 144, 145, 147
Arktos, 144, 145
Armigeri, 76
Artemis, 63, 72, 80, 86, 129. 133,

200 ; Mr. Max Miiller and,

204

MODERN MYTHOLOGY

137-140; Otfried Milller on,
140-142 ; beast dances, 142, 143 ;
the view of classical scholars,
143-144 ; Mr. Max Miiller's
explanation, 145, 146 ; wider
application of the theory, 145-
146 ; the bear dance, 146, 147

Artemis Kalliste, 140

Aruns, 149

Aryan languages, myths and
superstitions, 2, 4, 7, 53, 54, 80,
84-86, 110, 112, 120, 121, 123,
144, 191, 193, 194

Ass,yrians, 142

Asvins, 65, 66, 67, 68

Atharva Veda, 176, 191

Athene, 1, 2, 29, 63, 107, 129, 133

Athenians, 146, 147

Attic mvths, 86, 140

Attica, i40, 146

Aiistralia, aborigmes of, their myths
and superstitions, 37, 71, 75, 88,
90, 92, 99, 100, 114, 115, 120,
132, 133, 135, 151, 178-180, 182,
183, 193, 195-197

Aztec, 133

Bancroft, 84, 142

Banks Island, death myth of, 187

Banville, Theodore de, 144

Baptism a Maori ceremony, 189

Barnfield, Mr,, 163

Bastian, 190 n.

Bastian-Hartmann's Ethnological

Journal, 50
Bat totem, 88, 90
Bear myths, 71, 73, 74, 80, 87, 138,

140-142, 144-147
Beast dances, 142, 143, 146, 147
Bechtel, 108
Bee myth, 34, 36, 38
Behemoth, anecdote concerning,

87
' Bell's Life,' 16
Benfey, 29, 108
Bengal, superstitions of its tribes,

80, 179, 183
Bent, 195 n.
Bergaigne, 21
Bernadette, SeerofLourdes, 161 w,

174, 175
Berserks, 152
Bhaga, 56

Bharsani mata, 149

Bhuranyu, Vedic god, 148

Bible stories, parallels in mytho-

logv, 157, 175, 186
Big Feet (Bear totem), 73, 74
Bitiou, 59, 61
Blantyre Mission, 179
Bleek, 95, 100, 185
Blood-drops, 34, 36, 38
Boissarie, Dr., 174 n.
Borough English, 189
' Borough-men,' 48
Bosquet, 196 «.
Bottiger, 35
^oanis TTOTVia Hprj, 111
Brahmanism, 160, 161
Brand, 153
Brauron, 140
Brauronian rites, 142
Braves getis, 23, 26, 29, 39
Breal, 12
Brebeuf, 94

Brethren of the Green Wolf, 150
Bright One, 127
Brmton, Dr., 22, 74
Brown, Mr. Eobert, junior, 28, 35
Buddhist moon myth, 185 n.
Buffalo dances, 142, 146
Bug, 56
Bulgaria, fire-walkers in, 153, 161,

167-170, 174, 175
Bull gods and myths, 60, 61, 71,

80, 83-87
Bull-roarer, 115
Bulwer, Mr., 183
Burleymen, 48
Burmah, 92
Burnouf, E., 53
Burrymen, 48
Biisching, 152
' Bush-souls,' 91
Butcher, Professor, 139
Buzzard, Californian, 84

Cahroc myths, 4, 139, 140, 144,

196, 197'
Californian buzzard, 84
Calhsto, 74, 138-141, 144, 146
Cambyses, 60

Canizzaro, Signer, 22, 23, 107
Castor, 62, 65
Castren, 95
Catlin's engravings, 142

INDEX

205

Chaitan, 132

Chinese fire ordeal, 161

Chkai, 132, 133

Choctaw, myths and toteniism, 4,

91
Christoval de Mohma, 94
Xpoj/of, 35
Cieza de Leon, 94
Cm-au-av Brothers, 187
Cinderella, 59, 60
Clan-names and totemism, 72, 75,

77
Clans, 141

Classical Review, 81
Clemens Alexandrinus, 114
Clodd, Mr. Edward, 173, 175
Cocoannt nnih, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17
Codrington, 'Dr., 72, 95, 100, 103,

117 n., 142, 143, 179, 184 ?i.,

187 n., 188 n.
Colchian legend, 62
Confarreatio, 149
Cook Island, 159
Cooper, 73

Corn myths. 49, 54, 84-87, 150
Cow myth. 111
Cox, Sir George, 28
Coxe, Miss, 60
Craigie, Mr. W. A., 52
Crane myth, 145, 196
Cronos, 23, 31-38, 199
Crooke, 81 n.
Crookes, Mr. William, 118, 171 n.,

172, 173
Curr, Mr., 99, 100, 101
Ciirtius, 2, 29, 42, 52, 106, 108
Cyclops, 34

Dahana, 2, 18, 19
Dakshina, 85
Dalton, 80«., 179, 193 «.
Dambea, Jonathan, 156-159
Dances, beast, 142, 143, 146, 147
Daphne, 2, 57, 63, 127, 199 ; the
story of: Mr. Max Miiller's
method of controversy, 9-12 ;
Tuna and Daphne, 12-14 ; criti-
cism of Tuna and Daphne, 14-
16 ; the explanation, 16, 17 ;
disease of language and folk-
etymology, 17-20 ; Mannhardt
on Daphne, 20, 21
Dark One, 127, 128, 129, 130
Dawn, myths of, 1, 7-8, 19, 21,

33, 44, 53, 54, 62, 63, 65-67, 74,
83, 107, 132, 134, 135, 196

Death, the origin of : Yama, 176-
177, 191, 192; death regarded
as universal, 178-181 ; why men
are mortal, 181, 182 ; savage
death-myths, 182-184 ; the
Greek myth, 184-186 ; the ser-
pent, 186, 187 ; dualistic myth,
187 ; economic myth, 187, 188 ;
Maui and Nama, 188, 189 ;
Maui myths, 190, 191; infer-
ences, 192 ; the stealing of fire,
193 ; fire totems, 193, 194 ;
Prometheus, 194, 195 ; savage
myths of fire-stealing, 195-197 ;
origin of the myth of fire-
stealing, 197, 198

Death myth, 200

De Drosses, 25, 90, 117, 118 n.,
119-122, 125

Delaware tribe, 89, 145

Delphi, mythical stone at, 37

Demeter, 2, 36, 49, 53, 80, 86, 87,
133

Demeter-Erinnys, 51-54, 56, 65-
69, 105, 199

Deo, 67

Despine, 118

Despoina, 51, 53

Devinettes, 127

Dian, 144

Dio Cassius, 94

Dionysia, 114

Dionysus, 5 n., 48, 80, 83, 84, 87

Ator Ka>8<i>v, 141

AioaKopoi XevKOTTcoXoi, 67

Dioscouroi, 63, 67

Dog myths, 80, 82, 87, 134

Dolphin. 80

Domremy, festal procession at,
169

Dorians, 145

Dormouse, custom concerning, 89

Dorus, 145

Dozous, Dr., 173, 174 n.

Dracaena terminalis (("/-plant), 162

Draupati, goddess, 171

Dupret, 195 n.

Dyaus, 56, 110, 201

Dj-ava, 67

Earth mj^ths, 2, 33, 34, 53, 67,
132, 133

2o6

MODEEN MYTHOLOGY

' Eaten god, the,' 83 n.

Eel mvth, 9, 14, 16, 17, 97

Egede, 94

Egji^t, myths of, 9, 10, 59-61, 71,
72, 76, 82, 141

fKeWi deovcn iTrnni, 51

Eleusmia, 114

Elizabeth, Queen, witchcraft in
her time, 180

Encounter Bay, myths of, 135

Encydopcedia Britannica, 71,
79, 100 7z.

England, midsummer customs in,
151

Ephesus, Artemis of, 140

Epimetheus, 184

Epworth, lire at, 152

Erichthonius, 51

Erinnys, 2. 53, 54, 65, 68, 69.
See also Demeter-Erinnys

€pLvveiv, 51

Erskme, 179

Eskimo, their myths and super-
stitions, 4, 58, i79, 180

Eui-ipides, 144

Euroj^e, Northern, myth of, 84

Eusapia Paladino, 172

Eusebius, 5, 28, 125

Euxine, G2

Exogamy, 87, 88

Fairbairn, Dr., 93

Farnell, Mr., 7, 141 n.

Feronia, 148, 149, 150, 175

Feronia Mater, 149

Fetishism, 41, 199 ; comparisons
in comparative mythology, 112-
113 ; a question of logic, 113 ;
' scholars,' 113, 114 ; anthro-
pology and the mysteries, 114,
115 ; abstract ideas of savages,
115, 116 ; perception of the
Infinite, 116 ; and anthropo-
logical method, 116, 117 ; origin
of, 117-119 ; civilised, 119 ;
more mischiefs of comparison,
120 ; still more Nemesis, 120,
121 ; for us or against us ? 121-
124 ; the fallacy of 'Adiuils,'
124, 125 ; conclusion as to oiu'
method, 125, 126

Fiji, fire- walk in, 154-159, 161, 173

Fiji, moon myth of, 185

Finnisli mythology, 134

Fire-stealing, 193, 200, 202

Fire-walk, the : the method of
psychical research, 148 ; Mount
Soracte, 148, 149; Hirpi Sorani,
149-151 ; Mannhardt's defi-
ciency, 151 ; the fire-walk, 151-
154 ; the Fijian, 154-159 ;
Kling, 159-162 ; the Tongan,
162-166 ; in Trinidad, 167 ;
Bulgarian, 167-170 ; Indian,
170-172 ; psychical parallels
and research, 172-175, 200 ; in
Spain, 201

Fish disguises, 142

Flatey Book, Icelandic, 152

Folk-etymology, disease of lan-
guage and, 17-20

Foil-Lore, 159

Folk-poetry, 135

Fontenelle^ 5, 24, 28, 123-125

' Fountain Sunday ' at Domremy,
169

Fowler, Mr. Ward, 81

France, popular legend of, and
midsummer custom in, 58, 150,
151

Frazer, Mr. J. G., 7, 42-44, 46,
59, 61, 69, 71, 74, 77-79, 81,
83-86, 88-91, 100, 119, 142 n.,
143 n., 150, 199

Furtwangler, 108

Gaea, 33

Gaidoz, M. Henry, 24, 26-28, 31,
36, 39

Gandharvas, 105

Garcilasso de la Vega, 94

German myths, 2, 26, 185 n.

Getreide Mutter, 149

Gibier, Dr., 118

Gill, Eev. W. W., 10 n., 13, 14, 95,
104

Gmelin, 152

Goats, 52

Goguet, 6 ?i.

Gold Coast, fetish worship in,
117, 119

Golden Fleece, the, 61-63

Greece, its language, religion,
myths, and gods, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11,
17-19, 24, 26, 29, 32, 33, 37, 38,
42, 48, 49, 51, 61, 62, 67-69,
80-85, 87, 104-107, 110-112,
115, 117, 121, 123 125, 137-147,
149, 184, 193, 194, 201, 202

INDEX

207

Green frog fat, 175
Green Wolf, 150
Greenland myths, 37
Grey, Sir George, 99, 100, 178
Grimm, 7, 15 n., 41, 02, 62 w.
Grohmann, 82
Guatemala, 89
Gubernatis, 53, 59, 82
Guiana myths, 37

Hades, 188, 190

Hahn, Dr., 95, 104 106, 186 n.

Hale, Mr. Horatio, 23

Hall, Mr. S. C, 173

Hare myth, 74, 185

Hartland, Mr., 59

Hartung, 35

Harvest-gods, 2, 84, 35, 49

Harvest-home customs, 49

Harvey Islanders, 176, 177

Hasta fetialis, 119

Hastings, Mr., on the Num-Ti

fire ceremony, 165, 166
Hawk myth, 196
Heaven myth, 32, 33
Heber, 178
Hebrew, 120
Hegel, 115
Heitsi Eibib, 111
Helen, 1, 62, 68
Helios, 129, 134
Helle (Surya), 62
Henry, Miss Teuira, account of

Tongan fire ritual, 162-165
Henry, Professor Victor, 108
Hephaestus, 184
Hera, 63, 132, 133, 138
Heracles, worm-killuig, 81
Heraldry and Totems, 76
Hermeias, 56, 105
Hermes, 139
Herodotus, 60, 92, 94
Hervey Islands, 133
Hesiod, 33, 184, 195
Hesperides, 62
Hesychius, 34

Hindus, 24, 71, 112. See also India
Hine-nui-te-po, 190
Hirpi, 141, 148-150, 153, 159,

162, 173, 174
Hirpi Sorani, 148-154
Home, Daniel Dmiglas, 118, 161n.,

172, 173, 175

Homer, 51, 87, 112, 138, 139, 144,

197
Horse myth, 51, 65, 66, 67, 69
Horus, 60

Hos, Bengal tribe, 179
Hottentot gods and myths, 104,

106, 107, 185
Hunt, Mrs., 7, 62, 62 71.
Hyacinth, 10
Ilyginus, 11, 14

Iamblichus, 152, 172 n., 175

Iceland, fire-story concerning, 152

Idyia, 62

Ihiozi, 90

Ina, 9, 14, 16, 17

Ina-mae-aitu, 14

Incas, 75

India, its myths, rites, and super-
stitions, 10, 66-69, 81, 82, 110,
123, 154, 159 161, 170-172, 178,
179, 186, 191

Indra, 71, 76, 85, 86, 110

Ion, 145

lonians, 145

Iranian myth, 192

Iroquois, 123

Israelites, 124

Italy, the Hirpi of, 141, 159

James, Mr. William, 126

Jason, 62

Jeanne d'Arc, 169

Jemie, Pere Paul de, 180

Jevons, Mr., 7

Jewell, Bishop, and witchcraft, 180

Jewish ' Passing thi'ough the Fire,'

174
Jumieges, popular custom at, 150
Jiingstcn BecJit, 189
Jurn-win, 179
Jutland, North, folk-lore, 52

Kaffir mvths and folklore, 4,

37, 123, i38
Kalewala, 134

Kamilaroi myths, 4, 139, 140, 144
Kangaroo rat myth, 196
Karakias, 189
Karnos, 35
Kentauros, 105
Kernababy, 49

208

MODERN MYTHOLOGY

Kingsley, Miss, 91, 122

Kling iire-walk, 159-162, 166,

173
Kobons;, 75
KOprj, 49

Korndamonen, 150
Kpaivco, 35
Kpovtciiv, 31
Krilna, 35
Kuhn, Professor, 2, 35, 37, 44, 52,

56, 83, 150, 176, 194, 195
Kui, 14
Kwai Hemm, 37

Lafitau, 73, 94

Laing, Mr., 162

\a6fip, 106

Latin, and mythology, 4

Lauer, 2

Laurel myth, 11, 18-20

Leaf, Mr.', 139, 175 n.

Lefebure, M., 15, 118

Leo Africanus, 94

Leto, 106

Lettish legends, myths and songs,

45, 54, 56-58, 60, 62-64, 134,

135
Lewm, 186
Liebrecht, 15 n., 83 n.
Lightning gods and myths, 53,

82, 83, 150, 196
Lingard, 153
Lippert, Dr., 78
Lithuanian legends, 54
Lobeck, 114

Lockhart on the ordeal bv fire,

152, 153
Locust myths and superstition,

81
Loki, 52, 69
Long, 73

Longman'' s Magazine, 159
Lourdes, 161 n'., 174, 175

\vKr}, 82
AvKt]yfv s, 82
AuKoy, 82
Luperci, 48
Lupiherci, 48
Lykaon, 138

Macdonald, Mr. A., 201, 202
Maedonald, Mr. Duff, 179, 186
McLennan, Mr., 71, 75, 78, 79,

83, 88 «., 89, 99, 100, 102
Madhj'ania, 66

Maguey plant, goddess of, 140

INIaibaum, 20

' Maiden,' 49

Maize myth and superstition, 10,
49

Mama Cora, 49
I ' Man in the moon,' 185 n.
! ]\ran, Mr.. 97
' Man a, 118

INIandans, 74, 142, 146

Mangaia, its dialect and myths,

• 11-17, 115

I Manitou, meaning of, 89

I Mannhardt, 2, 3, 7, 14, 20, 36,

i 65, 67,87, 105, 106, 135, 148-

i 150, 153, 199 ; his attitude, 41 ;

and Mr. Max Miiller's moral

character, 41, 42 ; his method,

42,43,46,47; his letters, 43-

46 ; how he differs from Mr.

Max Milller, 46 ; another claim

on, 47 ; what he said, 47, 48 ;

return to his old colours, 49,

50 ; attitude to philology, 50 ;

irritating conduct of, 50, 51 ;

on Demeter-Erinnys, 51j 52 ;

his ' Mean Argument,' 52-

54 ; why he is thoiaght to

have been converted, 54, 55 ;

final confession, 55, 50 ; on

Solar mvths, 57, 58 ; on

Marchen,''58, 59; 'the Two

Brothers,' 59-61; the Golden

Fleece, 61-63 ; approach to

Max Miiller, 63, 64

jiavdavOf 194

Mantis insect, 37

Maori myths, 4, 32, 33, 38, 116,
177, 192

Marchen, 6, 7, 33, 36, 37, 58, 60-
62

Marischal, the Earl, 201

Marmalade legend, 18, 20

Marriage, Iloman bride-cake form
of, 149

Mary, Queen, and marmalade, 18

Masawe, Fijian process of cook-
ing, 155

Maston, 167

Mate, death myth, 187, 188

Maui, 188, 189, 192

Melanesia, myths and super-
stitions of, 95, 103, 118, 143,
183, 184

fxfXiai = pLtkiixaai, 34

INDEX

209

Melian nymphs, 3G, 38
Melies, 34
Melusine, 118

IXTJTrjf) KOpl], 49

Mexican myth, 140, 185 n.

Meyer, Mr., 135

Mice, plagues of, 81

Midnight sky, god of, 35

Midsummer customs, 159, 151,
153

MilLar, Professor, G ?i., 94, 101

Min copies, 97

Miracle du Cierge, 161 n., 174,
175

Mirzapur, 171

Mist, 1-2.1, 130

Mohammedan serpent myth, 186

Mohawk, 96

Moloch, 36

Monotheism, 134

Moon gods and myths, 14, 16, 53,
58, 143, 144, 185

Mordvinian mytliology, 132-134

Morne, Monsiem:, 163, 165

Morselli, Professor Enrico, 23

Mount Lycaeus, Arcadian canni-
bal rites, 151

Mount Soracte, 148, 149, 159

Mouse myths and totem, 80-82,
87

Muir, 65 n.

Miillenhoff, 44, 51, 54, 55

MilUer, Professor Max, his theo-
ries concerning mythology, 1-5 ;
criticisms of, and controversy
with, 6-12 ; and the story of Tuna,
12-21 ; his alhes and critics,
22-40; and Mannhardt, 41-64 ;
and Demeter-Erinnys, 65-69 ;
and totemism, 70-91 ; and an-
thropological evidence, 92-112 ;
his criticisms of fetishism,
112-126 ; and folk riddles, 127-
136 ; and Artemis, 137-147 ;
on Feronia, 148 ; on Mann-
hardt's deficiency, 151 ; and
Yama, 176, 192 ; and the steal-
ing of fire, 193 ; and fire-totems,
193 ; on Prometheus, 194, 195 ;
passage of arms with, 199,
200

Miiller, H. D., 53

Miiller, Otfried, 52, 140-142

Myers, Mr., 139

Myrrha, 10

Mythology, modern : in 1860 1880,
1-3 ; a ' disease ' of language :
the ugly scars, 4-7 ; criti-
cisms of Mr. Max Miiller's
theories, 6, 7 ; success of an-
thropological method, 7, 8 ;
Mr. Max Miiller's reply, 8 ; the
story of Daphne, 9-21 ; the
question of allies, 22-40; Mann-
hardt, 41-64 ; philology and
Demeter-Erinnys, 65-69 ; to-
temism, 70-81 ; the validity of
anthropological evidence, 92-
103 ; the philological method
in anthropology, 104-111 ; criti-
cism of Fetishism, 112-126;
the Kiddle theory, 127-136;
Artemis, 137-147"; the fire-
walk, 148-175 ; the origin of
death, 176-198; conclusions,
199, 200

NaIvilankata clan, fire-walkers,

155, 159
Nagual, meaning of, 89, 90, 91
Namaquas, 185
Narcissus, 10
Nature gods and myths. See Sun,

Earth, &c.
Nbengga, Island of, 155
New Caledonia, 179
New Hebrides, 179
New Zealand myths, 32, 33, 133,

185, 188
Nicholas Damascenus, 94
Night, myths of, 7, 37, 53, 65, 66,

82
Ningphos of Bengal, 183
Nistinares, Bulgarian, 161, 168-

170, 173, 175
Nootkas, 142, 146
Normandy myth, 126
Norse riddle, 127-130
Northumbrian harvest custom, 49
' Nymphs of the ash-trees,' 34

Oats, 52

Odin's eight-footed steed, 52

' Ododam,' 73

Odysseus, 34

Odyssey, 34 n., 62, 197 n.

2IO

MODERN MYTHOLOGY

Oldenberg, Professor, 41,72, 111 w.,

112-114
Oppert, 171
Oraons of Bengal, 80
Osiris, 61
Ottawa myths and totems, 10, 73,

75,76
Ouranos, 32-85, 38, 109

ovpf'w, 109
ovpni', 109

Ovid, 11, 14

Owl-totem, 88, 90

Oxenhams, white bird of the, 192

Pacakissas, 75

Palestine, fetish worship in, 117

Palilia, 151, 153

Palladium, 119

Pallas, 152

Pandavas, 171

Pandora, 184

Panoi, 188

Papa, 33

Parilia, 153

Parker, Mrs. Langloh, 196

Parmentier, M., 6n., 195n.

Pausanias, 51 n., 140, 141, 151 n.

Pentecost Island, 187

Pentheus, 11

nfpieXdflv ^pofxoi rrjv Koifirji', 48 TO.

Perijangridi, fire-walk at, 170

Perkunas, 56

Perrault, 58, 60

Persea, 60

Persephone, 149

Perseus, 62

Peru, ancient, harvest custom, 49

Phaethon, 10

Pharaoh, legend concerning, 60

Philodemus, 184

Philostephanus, 149

Phonetics, and the science of

mythology, 108, 109
Phrixus, 62
Picts, 72, 85
Pig myths, 80, 86, 87
Plant myths, 9, 10, 11, 19, 77, 140
Plantagenet, 74 n.
Plato, 5, 24, 119
Pliny, 149, 195 n.
Plutarch, 88 n.
Pollux, 05

TToXvuaa-Tos, 138, 139
Polydeuces, 62

Polynesia, 123, 154, 181

Polynesian Society' s Journal, 162,
165

Ponder, Stephen on Kling fire-
walk, 159-161, 167

Port Blair, its stone-house, 97

Poseidon, 28, 51-54, 68

Poseidon Hippios, 51

Potiphar's wife, 59

Prajapati, 191

Pramantha, 194, 201

Preller, 34, 35, 52, 108, 148 w.

TrpofXTjOfia, 195

Prometheus, 184, 188, 189, 194,
195, 197, 201

Proselenoi, 145

Pujari, 171

Puhiga, the Mincopie god, 97

PuwaiTees, superstition regarding
death, 178, 179

Qat (spider), 187

Queen's ferry, ' bound,' custom at

48
Quicherat, 169 n.

Eaiatea, fire ceremony in, 162—
166

Rain myth, 53, 111

Ram myth, 62, 80, 85, 86

Rangi, 33

Red dawn, 53, 107

Red Indians, their myths, totems
and superstitions, 4, 37, 61, 71,
73, 75, 89-90, 181, 187, 193, 194

Rhys, Mr., 72 n. 77, 114

Richardson, Sir B. W., 173

Riddle theory, the : what the
philological theory needs, 127 ;
the theory, 127-132; Mordvi-
nian and Lettish mythology, 132
-135 ; the chances of fancy,
135-130

Reeargar, 196

Rhombos, 114, 115

Ridley. Mr., 99

Rink, Dr., 95, 180

Rishis, 93

Rissachei'e, P. de la, 118

Robinson, 242

Rochas, 118 n.

INDEX

211

Rome, 87, 117
Rootoolgar, 196
Roscher's Lexikon, 22,
Rotli, 10
Rowan tree, 20

140

Saffron vest, 142

Sahagun, 94

St. Clair, Mr. Henry R., on fire-
walkers, 167

St. Constantine, Bulgai'iaii saint,
168, 170

St. Helena, Ijulgarian saint, 168

St. John's Eve customs, 150, 151

Samoa, its gods and myths, 10,
61, ,3, 142-144

Samos, 132

Samoyed myths, 4

Sancho Panza, 186

Sanskrit and mvthologv, 2, 4, 18,
19, 29, 65??.,'71, 109 111, 120,
149, 185 «., 198, 194, 201

Santhal legend, 60

Saparagenya, 19

Sarameva, 56, 105

Saranyu, 2, 53, 56, 05-69, 105, 134

Satapatha Brahmana, 69, 191

Sayana, 85

Sayce, Professor, 35, 72, 76, 77

Scherer, 54

Schischmanof, Dr., account of
the Bulgarian fire-walk, 167-168
Schmitz-]3aud, Madame, 118
Schrader, Otto, 106
Schroder, 19
Schwartz, 2, 34, 35, 52, 83, 108,

139
Scottish clans, 75
Scottish customs, 49, 151
Sea, 53
Selene, 129

Selkirk, bounds custom at, 48
Semites, 120, 121, 124
Serpent gods, mvths, and totems,

80, 87, 186
Servius, 149, 150, 196 n.
' Sex-kobong,' 88
Sex- totems in Australia, 88, 90
Shaitan, 132
Shamanism, 125
Shchapoff, Madame, 175
Shrimp, green, myth, 97
Sign-boards (totem signs), 73, 74
Silius Italicus, 149
Slavonic myths, 2, 4

Sleipnir, 52

Smintheus, 81, 82

Sminthian moiise, 86

Smith, Professor Robertson, 7,

Tin., 75-78, 89, 114, 142
Smyth, Mr. Brough, 135 n., 178,
183, 198 n.
' Snake myth, 186
Snake River tribe, 74
Snake's head, 13, 18
Socrates, 5

Solomon Island, 72, 191
Sonne, W., 52

Soracte. See Mount Soracte
Soranus, 148, 149, 175
South Pacific myths, 9, 13
South Sea Islands, 185 n., 189
Spain, fire-walk in, 201
Spencer, Mr. Herbert, 126 «.
Spirit worship, 134
Sproat, Mr., 95, 198 n.
Squirrel totem, 89
Star myths, 34-38, 62, 69, 139
Steel, Mrs., on Indian conjuring,

154
Stiefmiitterchen, 13
Stokes, Mr., on Indian fire-walks,

170, 171
Storm gods and myth, 34, 35, 53,

54, 83
Strabo, 81 n., 94, 149
Straits Settlement, fire-walkers

in, 160, 166
Suchier, 141
Suidas, 5 n.

Sumatra, fire feat in, 161
Sun myths and gods, 1, 4, 7, 19,
21, 33-35, 44, 53-55, 57, 58,
60-62, 66, 127, 130, 132-135,
143, 148, 190, 192
Suque, 187
Surama, 67
Svara, 110
Swan myths, 80
Sword as a symbol, 59

Taboo, 183, 185

Taero, fire-wallver, 163

Tagar, 187

Tahutahu, 165

Tangaro the Fool, 188, 191

Tasmanians, 100

Tawney, Mr., on Indian fire-walk,

170, '171
Taylor, Canon, 35

212

MODERN MYTHOLOGY

' Telekinetic ' origin of fetishism,
118, 119

TfX/xicrcreif, 5 n.

Telmisseis, 68

Thangbrandr, 152

Thargelia, Attic, 174

Theocritus, 49

Thesmoplioria, 114

ThUnkeets, myth of, 196, 197

Thomson, Mr. Basil, on Fijian
fire-walkers, 154-159

Thunder myths, 53, 83

Tiele, Prof., 23-39, 78, 105, 199

Time, God of, 34, 35

Titans, 184, 188

Tins, 56

Tiwakawaka, 191

Tona, meaning of, 89

Tone, Mr. N.J., on fire-walkers,
166

Tongan myths and rites, 162-166,
173, 191

Torreblanca's Demonologia, 153

Totems and Totemism, 6, 7, 59,
68, 69, 102, 110, 111, 134, 143,
145 ; Mr. Max Mliller on tote-
mism, 70, 71 ; defined, 71-72 ;
what a totem is, 72, 73 ; the
evidence for sign-boards, 73-75 ;
more about totems, 75 ; heral-
dry and totems, 76 ; gods and
totems, 76 ; an objection, 77 ;
a weak brother, 77-79 ; Mr.
Frazer on, 79, 86-91; Greek
totemism, 80-82 ; philological
theory regarding, 82 ; Mr.
Frazer on animals in Greek
religion, 83-85 ; Ayrian totems,
85,86

Tree-cult, 45, 46, 63

Tree-myths, 12-16, 18, 19, 34,
60-62

Trinidad, fire waUi in, 167

Troads, mice myths and, 80,
87

Trojan War, legends of, 63

Tsuni-Goam, 104-106

Tuna, 9, 10, 11, 17, 199

Tupua, fire-walker, 163

Turndun. See Bull-roarer

Turner, Mr., 10 n., 143

Tvashtri, 65

Two Brothers, the, 59-61

Tylor, Dr. E. B., 6, 7, 10 n., 94-
96, 100, 101, 114, 118 120, 126

and note, 151, 153, 177, 178,
188, 190, 192

Uranus, 56
Ugrian tribe, 132
Underworld, god of, 35
Unicorn, anecdotes concerning,

87
Ursa, 139
Urvasi, 110
Uum-Ti fire ceremony, 162-166

Vancouver's Island, 76

Varro, 149, 151, 175

Varshayami, 109

Varuna, 56, 109

Yeda, the, and Yedic myths, 14,

48, 53, 54, 57, 66, 67, 69, 85, 201 ;

obscuring the Veda, 111-114
Veda Eig, 2, 65, 68, 191, 192
Vico, 24

Virgil, 148, 149, 152, 175
Vivasvat, 65, 66
Voles, plagues of, 81
Voltaire, 6 n.

Wackernagel, 109

Waisoma, village of, 161

War-horse, the, 51, 52, 68

Welcker, 2, 107

Wesley, Mrs., 152

Whitney, Mr., 21

Witchcraft and death, savage

superstitions regarding, 178-

181
Wolf myths, 48, 71, 80, 89, 90,

142, 145, 146, 148, 187. See

Hirpi

Xenophon, 144

Yaska, 65, 66
Yehl, raven hero, 196
Yima, 192
Y'urucari myth, 10

Zapotec, 89

Zend, 29

Zeus, 1, 31, 56, 68, 110, 138, 139,

144, 184, 196, 201
Zeus Asterios, 28
Zeus Labrandeus, 28
Zulus, 90, 91, 114

ff/mttisu-oode ,V Co. Printers, Xeir-street Square, London

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INDEX OF AUTHORS AND EDITORS.

Abbott (Evelvn)

{T. K.) ■ - -

(E. A.) -

Acland (A. H. D.) -
Acton (Eliza) -
Acworth (H. A.)
Adeane (J. H.) .
iEschylus
Ainger (A. C.) -
Albemarle (Earl of) -
Alden (W. L.) -
Allen (Grant) -
Allingham (W.)
Anstey (F.)
Aristophanes -
Aristotle . - -
Armstrong (G. F.

Savage)

(E.J.) - 7.

Arnold (Sir Edwin) -

(Dr. T.) - .

Ashley (W.J.) -
Astor(J.J.) -
Atelier du Lys (Author

of)- - - -

fiabington (W. D.) -

Page

3.18

14. 15

H.)

7, 16,

24
18,29

ig, 29

S, 19

Bacon

Baden-Powell (B
Bagehot (W.) -
Bagwell (R.) -
Bain (Alexander)
Baker (Jamesl -

(Sir S. W.)

Balfour (A. J.) - ii,

Ball (J. T.)
Baring-Gould (Rev.

S.) - - - 27,

Barnett (Rev. S. A. &

Mrs.) -
Baynes (T. S.) -
Beaconsfield (Earl of)
Beaufort (Duke of) - lo,
Becker (Prof.) -
Beeslv (A. H.) -
Bell ('Mrs. Hugh) -
Bent (J. Theodore) -
Besant (Sir Walter)-
Bickerdyke (J.) - ii,

Bicknell (A. C.)
Bird (R.) -
Black (Clementina) .
Blackwell (Elizabeth)
Boase (Rev. C. W.) .

8 B

Boedder (B.) -
Bolland (W. E.)
Bosanquet (B.)
Boyd(Rev.A. K. H.)7,
Brassev (Lady)

(Lord) 3, 8,
ray (C. and Mrs.) -
Bright (J. F.) -
Broadfobt (Major W.
Brogger (W. C.) -
Brown (J. Moray) .
Browning (H. Ellen)
Buck (H. A.) -
Buckle (H. T.)-
BuU (T.) -
Burke (U. R.) -
Burrows (Montagu)
Butler (E. A.) -
(Samuel) -

Cameron of Lochiel
Cannan (E.)

(F. Laura)

Carmichael (J.)
Chesney (Sir G.)
Chisholm (G. G.) -

Page
16
14
14

29.31
8.9

12, 16
14
3

) 10

Cholmondelev-Pennell
(H.) - • - -

Christie (Nimmo) -

Cicero

Clarke (Rev. R. F.) -

Clodd (Edward)

Clutterbuck (\V. ].)-

Cochrane (A.) -

Comyn (L. N.)

Conington (lohn) -

Conybeare (Rev. W. J.)
& Howson (Dean)

Coventry (.\.) -

Cox (Harding)

Crake (Rev. A. D.) -

Creighton (Bishop) -

Crump (A.)

Cuningham (G. C.) -

Curzon (Hon. G. N.)

Cutts (Rev. E. L.) -

12 Davidson (W. L.) - 14.
17 ! Davies (J. F.) -

13 ' De la Saussaye (C.)-
19 I Deland (Mrs.) -

3^ Dent (C. T.) -
25 Deploige - - -

INDEX OF AUTHORS AND KUlTORS—eontinued.

Page

28, 29

De Salis (Mrs.)
De Tocqueville (A.)
Devas (C. S.) -

Dickinson (G. L.) - 4

Dougall (L.) - - 21

Dowell (S.) - - 16

Doyle (A. Conan) - 21

Drevfus (Irma) - 30

Du Bois (W. E. B.);- 4

Dufferin (Marquis of) 12

Dunbar (Mary F.) - 20

Ebrington (Viscount) 12

Egbert (J. C.) - - 18

Ellis (J. H.) - - 13

Ewald (H.) - - 4

Falkener (E.) - - 13

Farnell (G. S.) - - 18
Farrar (Dean) - - 16, 21

Fitzwygram (Sir F.) 10

Florian - - - 19

Follett (M. P.) - - 4

Folkard (H. C.) - 13

Ford (H.) - - - 13

Fowler (Edith H.) - 21

Francis (Francis) - 13

Freeman (Edward A.) 4

Frothingham (A. L.) 30
Froude (James A.) 4, 7, 9, 21

Furneaux (W.) - 24

Gallon (W. F.) - 17

Gardiner (Samuel R.) 4

Gerard (D.) - - 26
Gibbons (J. S.) - 11, 12

Gibson (Hon. H.) - 13

Gill (H.J.) - - 22

Gleig (Rev. G. R.) - 8

Goethe - - - 19
Graham (P. A.) - 13, 21

(G. F.) - - 16

Grant (Sir A.) - - 14

Graves (R. P.) - - 7

Green (T. Hill) - 14

Greville (C. C. F.) - 4

Grey (Maria) - 26

Grose (T. H.) - - 14

Grove (F. C.) - - u

(Mrs. Lilly) - 11

Gurney (Rev. A.) - ig

Gwilt(J.)- - - 30

Haggard (H. Rider) 21

Hake (O.) - - - 12

Halliwell-Phillipps(J.) 8

Hamlin (A. D. F.) - 30

Harding (S. B.) - 4

Hart (Albert B.) - 4

Harte (Bret) - - 22

Hartwig (G.) - - 24

Hassall (A.) - - 6
Haweis (Rev. H. R.) 7, 30

Hayward (Jane M.) - 24

Hearn (W. E.) - - 4
Heathcote (J. M.and

C. G.) - - 12
Helmholtz (Hermann

von) - - - 24

Henry (W.) - - 12 j

Herbert (Col. Kenney) 12 !

Hewins (W. A. S.) - 17

Hillier (G. Lacy) - 10
Hodgson (ShadworthH.) 14

Holroyd (Maria J.) - 7

Hope (Anthony) - 22

Hornung (E. W.) - 22

Houston (D. F.) - 4

Howell (G.) - - 16

Howitt (W.) - - 9

Hudson (W. H.) - 24

Hueffer (F. M.) - 7

Hume (David) - - 14

Hunt (Rev. W.) - 4
Hutchinson (Horace G.) 11

Ingelow (Jean

Page I
19, 26

JefferieK (Richard) - 30

Jones (H. Bence) - 25

Johnson (J. & J. H.) 30

Jordan (\V. L.) - 16

Jowett (Dr. B.) - 17

Joyce (P. W.) - - 4

Justinian - - - 14

Kalisch (M. M.) - 32

Kant (L) - - - 14, 15

Kaye (Sir J. W.) - 5

Kerr (Rev. J.) - - 12

Killick (Rev. A. H.) - 15

Kitchin (Dr. G. W.) 4
Knight (E. F.) - 5, 9, 12

Kostlin (J.) - - 7

Ladd (G. T.) - - 15
Lang (Andrew) 5, 10, 11, 13,
14, 17, 18, ig, 20, 22, 26, 30
Lascelles (Hon. G.) - 10, 11
Laurie (S. S.) - - 5

Leaf (Walter) - - 31
Lear (H. L. Sidney) - 29
Lecky (W. E. H.) - 5, ig
Lees (J. A.) - - 9

Lejeune (Baron) - 7

Lester (L. V.) - - 7

Lewes (G. H.) - - 15 I
Lindley (J.) - - 25 1
Lindsay (Lady) - 19

Lodi;e(H. C.) - - 4!

Loftie (Rev. W. J.) - 4 I

Longman (C. J.) 10, 13, 30 j

(F. W.) - - 13'

(G. H.) - - II, 12

Lowell (A. L.) - - 5

Lubbock (Sir John) - 17
Lucan - - - 18
Lvall (Edna) - - 22
Lyttelton (Hon. R. H.) 10
Lytton (Earl of) - 19

MacArthur (Miss E. A.) 17
Macaulav (Lord) 5, 6, 20
MacCoir(Canon) - 6

Macdonald (George) 20, 32
Macfarren (Sir G. A.) 30
Magruder (Julia) - 22
Mackail (J. W.) - 18
Mackinnon (J.) - 6

Macleod (H. D.) - 16
Macpherson (Rev. H. A.)i2
Maher (M.) - - ifi
Malleson(Col. G.B.) 5

Mandello (J.) - - 17
Marbot (Baron de) - 7

Marquand (A.) - - 30
Marshman (J. C.) - 7

Martineau (Dr. James) 32
Maskelyne (J. N.) - 13
Matthews (Brander) 22
Maunder (S.) - - 25
Ma.\ Mijller (F.)

15, 16, 30, 32

(Mrs.) - - 9

May (Sir T. Erskine) 6

Meade (L. T.) - - :6
Melville (G. J. Whyte) 22
Merivale (Dean) - 6

Merriman (H. S.) - 22
Mill (James) - - 15

(John Stuart) - 15, 16

Milner (G.) - - 30
Miss Molly (Author of) 26
Molcsworth (Mrs.) - 26
Montague (F. C.) - 6

Moore (T.) - - 25

(Rev. Edward) - 14

Morris (W.) - 20, 22, 31

■ (Mowbray) - 11

Mosso (A.) - - 15
Mulhall (M. G.) - 17

Page

Munk (W.)
Murray (R. F.)
Nansen (F.)
Nesbit (E.)
Newman (Cardinal) ■

O'Brien (W.) -
Ogle(W.)-
Oliphant (Mrs.)
Oliver (W. D.)
Onslow (Earl oO
Orchard (T. N.)
Osbourne (L) -

Palmer (A. H.) - 8

Park (W.) - - 13

Parr (Mrs. Louisa) - 26
Payne-Gallwey (Sir

R.) - - -11,13

Peary (Mrs. Josephine) 9

Peek (H.) - - - 11

Pembroke (Earl of) - 12

Perring (Sir P.) - 19
Phillips (M

Page

Spedding (J.) - - 7, 14

Stanley (Bishop) - 24

Steel (A. G.) - - 10

(J.H.) - - 10

Stephen (Sir James) 8

(Leslie) - - 9

Stephens (H. Morse) 6

(VV. W.) - - 8

Stevens (R. W.) - 31
Stevenson (R. L.) - 23, 26

Stock (St. George) - 15

' Stonehenge ' - - lo

Storr (R) - - - 14

Stuart-Wortley (A. j .) 11, 12

Stubbs (J. W.)- - 6

Sturdy (E. T.) - - 30

Sturgis (J.) - - 20
Suffolk & Berkshire

(Earl of ) - - II

Sulli\-an (Sir E.) - 12

Sully (James) - - 15
Supernatural Religion

{A uthor of)
Sutherland (A. and G.'
Suttner (B. von)

Phillipps-Wollev(C.) 10,22 Swinburne (A. J.)
Piatt (S. & J. J.)" - 20 I Symes (J. E.) -
Pleydell-Bouverie(E.O.) 12 |

Pole (W.)

Pollock (W. H.) - li

Poole (W. H. and

Mrs.) - - - 29

Poore (G. V.) - - 31

Potter (J.) - - 16

Prevost (C.) - - 11

Pritchett (R. T.) - 12
Proctor (R. A.) 13, 24, 28, 31

Quill (A. W.) -
Quillinan (Mrs.)
Quintana (A.) -

Raine (Rev. James) -
Ransome (Cyril)
Rhoades (j.) -
Rhoscomyl (O.)
Rich (A.) -
Richardfon(SirB.W.)

(C.) - - -

Richman (L B.)
Rickaby (John)

(Joseph) -

Ridley (Annie E.) -

(E.) - - -

Riley (J. W.) -
Roget (Peter M
Rokeby (C.) -
Rolfsen (N.) -
Romanes (G. J.)

8, 15, 17, 20

(Mrs.)

Ronalds (A.) -
Roosevelt (T.) -
Rossetti (M. F.)
Russell (Bertrand) -

Tacitus - - -
Tavlor (Meadows) -
Tebbutt (C. G.)
Thompson (N. G.) -
Thornhill (W. J.) -
Todd (A.) -
Toynbee (A.) -
Trevelyan (Sir G. O.)

(C. P.) -

Trollope (-Anthony) -
Tvndall (J.)
Tyrrell (K. Y.) -

Upton (F. K.
Bertha)

and

Saintsbury (G.)
Sandars (T. C.)
Seebohm (F.) -
Selous (F. C.) -
Selss (A. M.) -
Sewell (Elizabeth M.)
Shakespeare
Shand (A, I.) -
Sharpe (R. R.) -
Shearman (M.)
Sheppard (Rev. Edgar)
Sinclair (A.)
Smith (R. Bosworth)

(W. P. Haskett)

Soderini (Count E.)-
Solovyofl(V. S.) -
Sophocles
Soulsby(Lucy H.) -

18, 20 1 Verney (Frances P.
23 j and Margaret M.)

18 '• Vincent (J. E.)-
31 j Virgil

12 ; Vivekananda (Swami)

6 I
16 Wakeman (H. O.) -

16 ! Walford (Mrs.)

7 j Walker (Jane H.) -
Walpole (Spencer) -
Walrond (Col. H.) -
Walsingham (Lord) -
Waller (J.)
Watson (A. E. T.) -
Waylen (H. S. H.) -
Webb (Mr. and Mrs.

8 I Sidney)

13 I (T. E.) - -

4 Weber (A.)

31 ' Weir (Capt. R.)

17 I West (B. B.) - -23,31
I Weyman (Stanley) - 23

12 Whately(Archbishop) 14, 15

16, 25
23

II, 12

(E. Jane)

Whishaw(F. J.) - 9, 23

Whitelaw (R.) - - 18

Wilcocks (J. C.) - 13

Willich (C. M.) - 25

Witham (T. M.) - 12

Wolff(H. W.)- - 6

Wood (Rev. J. G.) - 25

Woodgate (W. B.) - 10

Wood-Martin (W.G.) 6
Wordsworth (Elizabeth) 26

Wylie (J. H.) - - 6

Youatt (W.) - - 10

Zeller(E.) - - i5

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